Radar Systems

IV B.Tech I Sem

by
Dr K Srinivasa Naik
Associate Professor
Dept. of ECE
 Course Objectives
To provide an insight into the basic concepts of
RADAR engineering.
MTI and Pulse Doppler Radar
Tracking Radar
block diagrams of Synthetic Aperture Radar
(SAR), Phased array Radars and others.
Different radar receiver principles of direction
finders
 Course Outcomes
At the end of the course the student will be able to
Understand the basic concepts of RADAR engineering
Understand the basic concepts of MTI and Pulse
Doppler Radar
Analyze Tracking Radar
Examine block diagrams of Synthetic Aperture Radar
(SAR), Phased array Radars and others.
Examine different radar receiver principles of
direction finders.
 Syllabus
Unit-I: Introduction to RADAR:

Radar Equation, Radar Block Diagram and

Operation, Prediction of Range, Minimum
Detectable Signal, Receiver Noise, Probability
Density Functions, S/N, Integration of Radar
Pulses, Radar Cross-section, Transmitter
Power, PRF and Range Ambiguities, Radar
Antenna Parameters, System Losses and
Propagation Effects.
 UNIT-II
MTI and Pulse Doppler RADAR:

Introduction, Delay line Cancellers, Moving

target Detector, Limitation to MTI performance,
MTI from moving platform, Pulse Doppler
Radar
 Unit-III
Tracking RADARS: Sequential Lobing,

Conical Scan, Monopulse tracking Radar, Low

angle tracking, Pulse compression, Block
Diagrams of Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR),
Phased array Radars, MST Radar, ECM,
ECCM.
 Unit-IV
Detection of Signals in Noise:

Matched Filter Receiver, Detection Criteria,

Constant False Alarm Rate Receivers.
Information From RADAR Signals: Basic Radar
Measurements, Pulse Compression, Target
Recognition.
 Unit-V
RADAR Transmitters and Receivers:

Magnetron, Solid State RF Power Source,

Other Aspects of Radar Transmitters, Radar
Receiver, Superheterodyne Receiver, Duplexers
and Receivers Protectors, Radar Displays.
 Text Books
“Radar Engineering and Fundamentals of Navigational
Aids”, G S N Raju, IK International Publishers, 2008

Reference Books:
“Introduction to Radar Systems”, Skolnik, McGraw Hill,
2007.
 History
Radar was invented for military purpose
before world war II in order to secretly detect
the presence of unknown objects.

Initially, the transmitting tubes were not that

much powerful thus worked at a very low
frequency of about 60 MHz.

But further development in the field and use

of magnetrons has extended the frequency
range to a higher level.
 History
According to the operation performed by the radar,
it is very important to have a system that can
accurately detect the presence of the target. So for
this purpose, narrow beam antennas with short-
wavelength are used that correspond to upper UHF
and microwave frequencies.

Thus the US army developed microwave radar

system and such a system can determine the
position of the object to within 0.1° and 25
meters.
 Introduction of Radar
Radar is an acronym for “RAdio Detection And Ranging”.
The term Radio refers to the use of electromagnetic waves
with wavelength in the so-called radio waves of the
spectrum, which covers a wide range from 104 km to 1
cm.
Radar is a system used to detect, determine the distance
and map the objects such as aircraft and rain.
Radar uses the strong radio waves for transmitting and
receiver listens for reflected echoes.
By analyzing the reflected signal, the reflector(object) can
be located and identified.
Radar can operate in the darkness, haze, fog, rain and
snow. It has ability to measure distance with high
accuracy in all weather condition.
 Introduction of Radar
The full form of RADAR is RAdio Detection And Ranging.
Detection refers to whether the target is present or not.
The target can be stationary or movable, i.e., non-
stationary. Ranging refers to the distance between the
Radar and the target.
Radars can be used for various applications on ground, on
sea and in space. The applications of Radars are listed
below.
 Controlling the Air Traffic
 Ship safety
 Sensing the remote places
 Military applications
In any application of Radar, the basic principle remains
the same.
Working Principle of Radar
The electronics principle on which Radar operates is
very similar to the principle of sound wave reflection.
If you shout in the direction of a sound reflecting
objects, you will hear an echo. So if you know the speed
of sound in the air, then estimate the distance and
general direction of object.
Same way, Radar uses the electromagnetic energy
pulses. The radio frequency energy is transmitted to
and reflects form the reflecting object.
A small portion of the energy is reflected and returns to
the Radar system. This returned energy is called
an ECHO.
Radar system use the echo to determine the direction
and distance of the reflecting object.
Working Principle of Radar
Working Principle of Radar
Working Principle of Radar

Radar mainly consists of a transmitter and a receiver.

It uses the same Antenna for both transmitting and
receiving the signals. The function of
the transmitter is to transmit the Radar signal in the
direction of the target present.

Target reflects this received signal in various

directions. The signal, which is reflected back towards
the Antenna gets received by the receiver.
How the reception of an echo can
determine the range and location of the
target?
Range specifies the distance between the target and
the radar system. The range to an object is determined
by the measurement of the time taken by the radiated
signal to reach the object and come back to the radar.
The location of the stationary object in the space is
determined from the angle pointed by the antenna
when the echo received is of maximum amplitude.
For a moving object because of the Doppler effect,
there exists a shift in the frequency of the re-radiated
signal. And the frequency shift shows proportionality
with the radial velocity of the object.
How the reception of an echo can
determine the range and location of the
target?
 Terminology of Radar Systems
Range
Pulse Repetition Frequency
Maximum Unambiguous Range
Minimum Range

Range: The distance between Radar and target is

called Range of the target or simply range, R. We know
that Radar transmits a signal to the target and accordingly
the target sends an echo signal to the Radar with the
speed of light, C.

Let the time taken for the signal to travel from Radar to
target and back to Radar be ‘T’. The two way distance
between the Radar and target will be 2R, since the
distance between the Radar and the target is R.
Terminology of Radar Systems
 Terminology of Radar Systems
Pulse Repetition Frequency
Radar signals should be transmitted at every clock pulse.
The duration between the two clock pulses should be
properly chosen in such a way that the echo signal
corresponding to present clock pulse should be received
before the next clock pulse. A typical Radar wave form is
shown in the following figure.
 Terminology of Radar Systems
As shown in the figure, Radar transmits a periodic
signal. It is having a series of narrow rectangular
shaped pulses. The time interval between the
successive clock pulses is called pulse repetition time
Tp.

Pulse repetition frequency, fp=1/Tp

Therefore, pulse repetition frequency is nothing but

the frequency at which Radar transmits the signal.
 Pulse Transmission
Pulse Width (PW)
– Length or duration of a given pulse
Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF)
– Frequency at which consecutive pulse are
transmitted
Pulse Repetition Time (PRT=1/PRF)
– Time from beginning of one pulse to the next
– Inverse of PRF
PW determines radar’s
– Minimum detection range
– Maximum detection range
PRF determines radar’s
– Maximum detection range
 Terminology of Radar Systems

Maximum Unambiguous Range

 Radar signals should be transmitted at every clock pulse.
If we select a shorter duration between the two clock
pulses, then the echo signal corresponding to present
clock pulse will be received after the next clock pulse. Due
to this, the range of the target seems to be smaller than
the actual range.

 So, we have to select the duration between the two clock

pulses in such a way that the echo signal corresponding to
present clock pulse will be received before the next clock
pulse starts. Then, we will get the true range of the target
and it is also called maximum unambiguous range of the
target or simply, maximum unambiguous range.
 Substitute, R=Run and T=Tp in Equation 1
Run=CTp/2 Equation 3
From Equation 2, we will get the pulse repetition time, Tp as
the reciprocal of pulse repetition frequency, fP. Mathematically,
it can be represented as
Tp=1/fp Equation 4
Substitute, Equation 4 in Equation 3.
Run=C(1/fp)/2
Run=C/2fp Equation 5
We can use either Equation 3 or Equation 5 for calculating
maximum unambiguous range of the target.
We will get the value of maximum unambiguous range of the
target, Run by substituting the values of C and TP in Equation
3.
Similarly, we will get the value of maximum unambiguous
range of the target, Run by substituting the values
of C and fp in Equation 5.
 Terminology of Radar Systems
Minimum Range
We will get the minimum range of the target, when
we consider the time required for the echo signal to
receive at Radar after the signal being transmitted
from the Radar as pulse width. It is also called the
shortest range of the target.

Substitute, R=Rmin and T=τ in Equation 1

Rmin=Cτ/2 Equation 6

We will get the value of minimum range of the

target, Rmin by substituting the values of C and τ in
Equation 6.
Classification of radar systems
 Two Basic Radar Types

Pulse Transmission

Continuous Wave
 Pulse Radar
The Radar, which operates with pulse signal is called
the Pulse Radar. Pulse Radars can be classified into
the following two types based on the type of the
target it detects.
Basic Pulse Radar
Moving Target Indication Radar
 Basic Pulse Radar
The Radar, which operates with pulse signal for
detecting stationary targets, is called the Basic Pulse
Radar or simply, Pulse Radar.

It uses single Antenna for both transmitting and

receiving signals with the help of Duplexer.

Antenna will transmit a pulse signal at every clock

pulse. The duration between the two clock pulses
should be chosen in such a way that the echo signal
corresponding to the present clock pulse should be
received before the next clock pulse.
Moving Target Indication Radar
The Radar, which operates with pulse signal for
detecting non-stationary targets, is called Moving
Target Indication Radar or simply, MTI Radar.

It uses single Antenna for both transmission and

reception of signals with the help of Duplexer.

MTI Radar uses the principle of Doppler effect for

distinguishing the non-stationary targets from
stationary objects.
 Continuous Wave Radar
The Radar, which operates with continuous signal or
wave is called Continuous Wave Radar. They use
Doppler Effect for detecting non-stationary targets.
Continuous Wave Radars can be classified into the
following two types.

Unmodulated Continuous Wave Radar

Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave
Radar
Unmodulated Continuous Wave Radar
The Radar, which operates with continuous signal
(wave) for detecting non-stationary targets is called
Unmodulated Continuous Wave Radar or simply, CW
Radar. It is also called CW Doppler Radar.

This Radar requires two Antennas. Of these two

antennas, one Antenna is used for transmitting the
signal and the other Antenna is used for receiving
the signal.

It measures only the speed of the target but not the

distance of the target from the Radar.
Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave
Radar
If CW Doppler Radar uses the Frequency Modulation,
then that Radar is called the Frequency Modulated
Continuous Wave (FMCW) Radar or FMCW Doppler
Radar. It is also called Continuous Wave Frequency
Modulated Radar or CWFM Radar.

This Radar requires two Antennas. Among which,

one Antenna is used for transmitting the signal and
the other Antenna is used for receiving the signal. It
measures not only the speed of the target but also
the distance of the target from the Radar.
Basically, there exist two major radar systems:
Monostatic Radar System: A monostatic radar
system uses a single antenna for transmission as
well as reception purpose.
Bistatic Radar System: A bistatic radar system
utilizes independent antennas for transmission and
reception of the signal.
 Applications of Radar
Radar systems find its applications in a wide variety
of fields like military, air traffic control, in weather
forecasting, remote sensing, astronomy, mapping
etc.
Military: It is the major application of radar and is
one of the most important parts of the air defence
system. Radar is used for the purpose of navigation
and surveillance in the military for secure
operations.
Air traffic controlling: Radar is used to control the
air traffic in the air routes and airports. High-
resolution radars are used for analyzing the aircraft
and ground vehicular traffic at the airports.
 Applications of Radar
Ship safety: Radars are used to provide safety
measures to the ships in bad visibility conditions by
giving alerts about the existence of other ships in the
route.
Remote sensing: Radar is a remote sensor by nature
as they can sense the geophysical objects. And these
are used forecasting of weather conditions along with
agricultural conditions and environmental pollution.
Block Diagram of Radar System
 We know that a radar system has a transmitting and
receiving section. And both the sections perform their
respective operation.
Transmitter Section: The transmitter section is
composed of the following units:
1. Waveform Generator: The waveform generator
(usually a magnetron) generates a radar signal at low
power which is to be transmitted into space.

2. Transmitter: The signal generated by the waveform

generator is fed to the transmitter. The transmitter
section can be a magnetron, travelling wave tube or a
transistor amplifier. In the case of pulse radar,
magnetrons are widely used as transmitters but
whenever there exists a need for high average power
then amplifiers are used.
3. Pulse modulator: A pulse modulator is used to build
synchronization between the waveform generator and
transmitter. The pulse modulator causes the turning on
and off of the power amplifier according to the input
pulses generated by the waveform generator.

4. Duplexer: A duplexer is basically used to form

isolation between transmitter and receiver section. A
duplexer allows the use of a single antenna for both
transmission and reception purpose. However, both the
sections operate at different power level, therefore, a
duplexer is used to isolate the two section.
Thus the signal from the transmitter is provided to the
antenna through the duplexer. As the duplexer short
circuits the input of the receiver section.
 Receiver Section
5. Low noise RF amplifier: The receiver must be
superheterodyne. The unit acts as the input stage for
the receiver section. The RF amplifier generates an RF
pulse which is proportional to the echo of the
transmitted signal.

6. Mixer and Local Oscillator: The RF pulse received

from the low noise RF amplifier is converted into an IF
pulse. Usually, the RF amplifier acts at the input
stage of the receiver section but sometimes the mixer
acts at the input stage by eliminating the RF
amplifier.But this leads to a less sensitive receiving
section due to the high noise figure of the mixer.
7. IF amplifier: The IF pulse generated by the mixer
circuit is amplified by the IF amplifier. It acts as a
matched filter and increases the SNR of the received
signal. Also, it enhances the echo detecting ability of
the receiver section by reducing the effects of
unwanted signals. The receiver’s bandwidth is
associated with the bandwidth of the IF stage.

8. 2nd Detector or Demodulator: This unit is nothing

but a crystal diode that performs demodulation of the
signal by separating the transmitted signal from the
carrier.

9. Video Amplifier: This unit amplifies the received

signal to a level that can be displayed on the screen.
10. Threshold decision: This unit makes the decision
about the existence of the target in space. Basically, it
has some threshold limit set which is compared with
the magnitude of the received signal.
If the threshold value is surpassed by the output
signal, then this shows that presence of the target.
Otherwise, it is assumed that only the noise
component is present in the space.

11. Display: The display unit shows the final output

of the receiver section. PPI i.e., plan position
indication is typically used as the radar display unit.
It presents the range and location of the object by
mapping it in polar coordinates. PPI is implemented
with CRT.
 Radar Range Equation
The radar range equation is used to evaluate the
particular range up to which the object or target
detection is possible.

The equation is related to various factors of the radar

system like characteristics of transmitting, receiving
antenna, object/ target and the effects of the
environment on the transmitted signal. While
designing a radar system, the radar range equation is
an important aspect because it shows the range up to
which the system can detect the target.
Derivation of Radar Range Equation
R denotes the distance of the object from the
transmitting antenna,
σ denotes the cross-sectional area of the object,
Pt denotes the maximum amplitude of transmitted
power,
Pr is the maximum amplitude of power received by
receiving antenna,
Gt is the power gain of transmitting antenna relative to
an isotropic radiator,
Gr is the power gain of receiving antenna,
Ae is the effective area of receiving antenna,
Smin denotes the minimum amplitude of the signal that
can be detected by the antenna at the receiving end.
 Radar Range Equation
Consider that the transmitting antenna is isotropic in
nature thus it radiates the transmitted power in a
uniform manner in all the directions.
Power density will be given as power per unit area

It is the ratio of transmitted power by the antenna to the

surface area of the imaginary sphere i.e., 4πR2. Here R
denotes the radius of the sphere. Its unit is watts/m2.
Pt denotes the maximum amplitude of transmitted power

Usually, radar systems use a directive antenna with

narrow beamwidths that direct the radiated power in a
single direction.
 Radar Range Equation
The antenna gain specifies the power density in the
direction of the directive antenna to the power density in
that particular direction by an isotropic antenna.

Therefore, the power density by the directive antenna at

the object is given by
 Radar Range Equation
We know the signal transmitted by the radar when
intercepted by an object in space then the energy gets
re-radiated in different directions.

And this leads to the reception of a part of

transmitted signal i.e., echo by the receiving
antenna.However, the reflecting ability of the object is
specified by its cross-sectional area.

Suppose P is the power incidenting on the object and is

given by:
 Radar Range Equation
The reflected power density at the radar system is given
by

The antenna at the receiving section of the system

captures a part of the echo signal reflected by the
object/ target.

However, the power received by this antenna will be the

product of power incidenting on the receiving antenna
and the effective area of the antenna.

Ae is given by A.ρa Here A is the physical area and ρa is

the antenna aperture efficiency.
 Radar Range Equation

The distance beyond which the object cannot be

identified is defined as the highest range supported by
the radar. And this happens when received echo
becomes equal to the minimum detectable signal Smin.

So substituting Pr = Smin and transposing R to the LHS

we get the maximum supportable range of the radar
system. And it is given by:
 Radar Range Equation

This equation is known as the standard form of radar

range equation.
Modified Forms of Radar Range Equation
This is the modified form of Radar range equation. By
using the above equation, we can find the maximum
range of the target.

We will get the following relation between effective

aperture, and the Gain of directional Antenna
 RADAR FREQUENCIES
 Rf spectrum is very scarce and as such Radars are
allotted only a certain frequency bands for their
operation by International Telecom Union ITU
 During 2nd world war, to keep the secrecy, certain

code words were used. The same designations are

continued even today
 Lema Band (L) 1GHZ-2GHZ,Sierra band (S) 2GHZ-

4GHZ, Charlie Band (C) 4GHZ-8GHZ,Xera Band (X)

8GHZ-12GHZ
 ITU (International Telecommunication Union)allocated

a portion of these bands for Radar

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
 Radar Frequencies and its applications
Frequency Description Application
Extremely Low Frequency
Up to 300Hz Frequency Description Special Communication
Application
(ELF)
300Hz – 3KHz Voice Frequency Special Communication

Shored-based communications,
3KHz – 30KHz Very Low Frequency (VLF)
experimental

Shored-based communications,
30KHz – 300KHz Low Frequency (LF)
navigation

300KHz – 3MHz Medium Frequency (MF) commercial broadcast band

Ship and shore long range
3MHz – 30MHz High Frequency (HF)
communication
30MHz – 300MHz Very High Frequency (VHF) communication, navigation

Line-of-sight communication to
300MHz – 3GHz Ultra High Frequency (UHF) 400Mhz, above this frequency
radar and special equipment

3GHz – 30GHz Superhigh Frequency (SHF) radar and special equipment

Extremely High Frequency
30GHz- 300GHz radar and special equipment
(EHF)
 Application of Radar
Surveillance search Radar in military
Navigational Radar in military as well as in civil
Targeting Radar or tracking Radar
Weather Radar
Radar proximity fuses
Radar altimeter
Air traffic control Radar
Traffic Radar
Monitoring of space vehicles.
In industry for oil and gas exploration.
PREDICTION OF RANGE PERFORMANCE

All the parameters are to some extent under the control of

the radar designer, except for the target cross section σ.
The radar equation states that if long ranges are desired,

Peak power transmitted by the Radar Pt should be high.

Gain of the transmitting Antenna G should be high.
Radar cross section of the target σ should be high.
Effective aperture of the receiving Antenna Ae should be
high.
Power of minimum detectable signal Smin should be
low.
PREDICTION OF RANGE PERFORMANCE
It is difficult to predict the range of the target from the
standard form of the Radar range equation. This means,
the degree of accuracy that is provided by the Radar
range equation about the range of the target is less.
The predicted values of radar range are usually
optimistic. In some cases the actual range might be only
half of that is predicted.

Because, the parameters like Radar cross section of the

target, σ and minimum detectable
signal, Smin are statistical in nature.
PREDICTION OF RANGE PERFORMANCE
The failure of the simple form of radar equation is due to
1.The statistical nature of the minimum detectable signal
determined by receiver noise.
2.Fluctuations and uncertainty in radar cross-section.
3.The losses throughout the radar system.
4.Propagation effects caused by the earth’s surface and
atmosphere. Because of statistical nature of receiver noise
and target cross section, the maximum radar range is
described probabilistically rather than single number.

Therefore the radar range equation includes

1.Probability that radar will detect a target at a particular
range (pd).
2.Probability of making a false detection when no target is
present (pfa).
 Minimum Detectable Signal
If the echo signal has minimum power, detecting that
signal by the Radar is known as minimum detectable
signal. This means, Radar cannot detect the echo signal
if that signal is having less power than that of minimum
power.

In general, Radar receives the echo signal in addition

with noise. If the threshold value is used for detecting
the presence of the target from the received signal, then
that detection is called threshold detection.

We have to select proper threshold value based on the

strength of the signal to be detected.
 Minimum Detectable Signal
A high threshold value should be chosen when the
strength of the signal to be detected is high so that it will
eliminate the unwanted noise signal present in it.
Similarly, a low threshold value should be chosen when
the strength of the signal to be detected is low. Noise
might exceed it and be mistaken for a target. This is
called a false alarm.
If the threshold level were set too high, noise might not
be large enough to cause false alarms, but weak target
echoes might not exceed the threshold and would not be
 Minimum Detectable Signal

A typical waveform of the Radar receiver is shown in

the above figure. The x-axis and y-axis represent time
and voltage respectively. The rms value of noise and
threshold value are indicated with dotted lines in the
above figure.
 Minimum Detectable Signal
We have considered three points, A, B & C in above
figure for identifying the valid detections and
missing detections.
The value of the signal at point A is greater than
threshold value. Hence, it is a valid detection.
The value of the signal at point B is equal to
threshold value. Hence, it is a valid detection.
Even though the value of the signal at point C is
closer to threshold value, it is a missing detection.
Because, the value of the signal at point C is less
than threshold value.
So, the points, A & B are valid detections. Whereas,
the point C is a missing detection.
 Receiver Noise
If the receiver generates a noise component into the
signal, which is received at the receiver, then that kind
of noise is known as receiver noise.
 The receiver noise is an unwanted component; we
should try to eliminate it with some precautions.
However, there exists one kind of noise that is known as
the thermal noise. It occurs due to thermal motion of
conduction electrons.
Mathematically, we can write thermal noise
power, Ni produced at receiver as −
 Receiver Noise
For radar receivers of the super heterodyne type (the type of receiver
used for most radar applications), the receiver bandwidth is
approximately that of the intermediate-frequency stages.

where H(f) = frequency-response characteristic of IF amplifier (filter)

and fo = frequency of maximum response (usually occurs at
midband). When H (f) is normalized to unity at midband (maximum-
response frequency), H (fo) = 1.

The bandwidth Bn is called the noise bandwidth and is the bandwidth

of an equivalent rectangular filter whose noise-power output is the
same as the filter with characteristic H (f).
Figure of Merit
Figure of Merit
 Figure of Merit
From the above equation, we can conclude that the following
conditions should be considered in order to get the range of
the Radar as maximum.

 Peak power transmitted by the Radar, 𝑃𝑡 should be high.

 Gain of the transmitting Antenna 𝐺 should be high.

 Radar cross section of the target 𝜎 should be high.

 Effective aperture of the receiving Antenna 𝐴𝑒 should be high.

 Figure of Merit F should be low.

 Receiver bandwidth 𝐵𝑛 should be low.

 Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR)
The results of statistical noise theory will be applied to obtain:
The signal-to-noise ratio at the output of the IF amplifier necessary to
achieve a specified probability of detection without exceeding a specified
probability of false alarm.
The output signal-to-noise ratio thus obtained is substituted into the final
modified radar equation, we have obtained earlier.

The details of system that is considered:

 IF amplifier with bandwidth BIF followed by a second detector and a video

amplifier with bandwidth BV as shown in the figure below.
 The second detector and video amplifier are assumed to form an envelope
detector, that is, one which rejects the carrier frequency but passes the
modulation envelope.
 To extract the modulation envelope, the video bandwidth must be wide
enough to pass the low-frequency components generated by the second
detector, but not so wide as to pass the high-frequency components at or
near the intermediate frequency. The video bandwidth BV must be greater
than BIF/2 in order to pass all the video modulation.
 Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR)

Step 1: To determine the Probability of false alarm when noise alone is

assumed to be present as input to the receiver:
The noise entering the IF filter (the terms filter and amplifier are used
interchangeably) is assumed to be Gaussian, with probability-density
function given by
 Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR)

where R is the amplitude of the envelope of the filter output. The probability
that the envelope of the noise voltage will lie between the values of V1 and V2
is

The probability that the noise voltage envelope will exceed the
voltage threshold VT is
 Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR)
Whenever the voltage envelope exceeds the threshold VT, a target is
considered to have been detected. Since the probability of a false
alarm is the probability that noise will cross the threshold, the above
equation gives the probability of a false alarm, denoted by Pfa.

Step 2 : To determine Probability of detection when a sine wave

signal is present along with noise:
Thus far, a receiver with only a noise input was discussed. Next,
consider a sine-wave signal of amplitude A to be present along with
noise at the input to the IF filters. The frequency of the signal is the
same as the IF mid band frequency fIF. The output of the envelope
detector has a probability-density function given by

where Io ( Z ) is the modified Bessel function of zero order and argument Z.

 Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR)
When the signal is absent, A = 0 and the above equation for PDF for signal
plus noise reduces to the probability-density function for noise alone. This
Equation is sometimes called the Rice probability-density function.

The probability that the signal will be detected (which is the probability of
detection) is the same as the probability that the envelope R will exceed the
predetermined threshold VT. The probability of detection Pd is therefore:

The expression for Pd given by equation after series expansion is a

function of the signal amplitude A, threshold voltage VT ,and mean
noise power Ψ0 . In Radar systems analysis, it is more convenient to
use Signal to Noise power ratio (S/N) rather than signal to noise
voltage ratio A/Ψ 0½.
 Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR)
A much easier empirical formula developed by
Albersheim for the relationship between S/N,PFA and Pd
is also given below :
S/N = A + 0.12AB + 1.7 B
Where A = ln [ 0.62/ PFA] and B = ln [ Pd /(1- Pd) ]
 Integration of Radar Pulses
Many pulses are usually returned from any particular target on each radar
scan and can be used to improve detection. The number of pulses nB
returned from a point target as the radar antenna scans through its beam
width is

Typical parameters for a ground-based search radar might be pulse repetition

frequency 300 Hz, 1.5° beamwidth, and antenna scan rate 5 rpm (30°/s). These
parameters result in 15 hits from a point target on each scan. The process of
summing all the radar echo pulses for then purpose of improving detection is
called integration. Many techniques might be employed for accomplishing
integration. All practical integration techniques employ some sort of storage
device. Perhaps the most common radar integration method is the cathode-ray-
tube display combined with the integrating properties of the eye and brain of the
radar operator.
 Integration of Radar Pulses
 The process of summing all the radar echo pulses for the purpose of
improving detection is called integration.
 Integration may be accomplished in the radar receiver either before the
second detector (in the IF) or after the second detector (in the video).
 Integration before the detector is called pre-detection or coherent
integration. In this the phase of the echo signal is to be preserved if full
benefit is to be obtained from the summing process
 Integration after the detector is called post detection or non coherent
integration. In this phase information is destroyed by the second detector.
Hence post detection integration is not concerned with preserving RF
phase. Due to this simplicity it is easier to implement in most
applications, but is not as efficient as pre-detection integration.
 If n pulses, all of the same signal-to-noise ratio, were integrated by an
ideal pre-detection integrator, the resultant or integrated signal-to-noise
(power) ratio would be exactly n times that of a single pulse. If the same n
pulses were integrated by an ideal post detection device, the resultant
signal-to-noise ratio would be less than n times that of a single pulse.
This loss in integration efficiency is caused by the nonlinear action of the
second detector, which converts some of the signal energy to noise
energy in the rectification process.
 Integration of Radar Pulses
 Due to its simplicity, Post detection integration is preferred many a times
even though the integrated signal-to-noise ratio may not be as high as
that of Pre-detection. An alert, trained operator viewing a properly
designed cathode-ray tube display is a close approximation to the
theoretical post detection integrator.
 The efficiency of post detection integration relative to ideal pre-detection
integration has been computed by Marcum when all pulses are of equal
amplitude. The integration efficiency may be defined as follows:

Where n = number of pulses integrated

(S/N )1= value of signal-to-noise ratio of a single pulse required to
produce a given probability of detection(for n = 1)
(S/N )n = value of signal-to-noise ratio per pulse required to
produce the same probability of detection when n pulses ( of
equal amplitude ) are integrated
 Integration of Radar Pulses
 The improvement in the signal-to-noise ratio when n pulses are integrated
post detection is n.Ei(n) and is the integration-improvement factor. It may
also be thought of as the effective number of pulses integrated by the
post detection integrator.
 The improvement with ideal pre-detection integration would be equal to n.
Integration loss in decibels is defined as Li(n) = 10 log [1/Ei(n)].
The radar equation with n pulses integrated can be written

Substituting the equation for integration efficiency

into the above Radar equation gives the final
modified Radar equation including integration
efficiency.
Radar Cross Section of Targets
The radar cross section of a target is the (fictional) area intercepting that
amount of power which. when scattered equally in all directions,
produces an echo at the radar equal to that from the target; or in other
terms,

This equation is equivalent to the radar range equation. For most

common types of radar targets such as aircraft, ships, and terrain, the
radar cross section does not necessarily bear a simple relationship to
the physical area, except that the larger the target size, the larger the
cross section is likely to be.
Radar Cross Section of Targets
Scattering and diffraction are variations of the same physical process.
When an object scatters an electromagnetic wave, the scattered field is
defined as the difference between the total field in the presence of the
object and the field that would exist if the object were absent (but with the
sources unchanged).

On the other hand, the diffracted field is the total field in the presence of
the object. With radar backscatter, the two fields are the same, and one
may talk about scattering and diffraction interchangeably.

In theory, the scattered field, and hence the radar cross section, can be
determined by solving Maxwell's equations with the proper boundary
conditions applied. Unfortunately, the determination of the radar cross
section with Maxwell's equations can be accomplished only for the most
simple of shapes, and solutions valid over a large range of frequencies
are not easy to obtain.
Radar Cross Section of Targets

Fig. Radar cross section of the sphere. a = radius; λ = wavelength

The radar cross section of a simple sphere as a function of its
circumference measured in wavelengths (2πa/λ where a is the radius of the
sphere and λ is the wavelength ). The plot consists of three regions.
Radar Cross Section of Targets
1. Rayleigh Region:
The region where the size of the sphere is small compared with the
wavelength (2πa/λ ˂1) is called the Rayleigh region. The Rayleigh scattering
region is of interest to the radar engineer because the cross sections of
raindrops and other meteorological particles fall within this region at the
usual radar frequencies.

2. Optical region:
It is at the other extreme from the Rayleigh region where the dimensions of
the sphere are large compared with the wavelength (2πa/λ ˃1). For large
2πa/λ, the radar cross section approaches the optical cross section πa2.

3. Mie or Resonance region:

Between the optical and the Rayleigh region is the Mie, or resonance, region.
The cross section is oscillatory with frequency within this region. The
maximum value is 5.6 dB greater than the optical value, while the value of the
first null is 5.5 dB below the optical value. (The theoretical values of the
maxima and minima may vary according to the method of calculation
employed.
Radar cross section of a cone-sphere
 An interesting radar scattering object is the cone-sphere, a cone
whose base is capped with a sphere such that the first derivatives of
the cone and sphere contours are equal at the join between the
two.The cross section of the cone-sphere from the vicinity of the
nose-on direction is quite low.

 Scattering from any object occurs from discontinuities. The

discontinuities, and hence the backscattering, of the cone-sphere are
from the tip and from the join between the cone and the sphere.

 There is also a backscattering contribution from a" creeping wave"

which travels around the base of the sphere. The nose-on radar cross
section is small and decreases as the square of the wavelength.

 The cross section is small over a relatively large angular region. A

large specular return is obtained when the cone-sphere is viewed at
near perpendicular incidence to the cone surface, i.e., when θ= 90 - α,
where α= cone half angle. From the rear half of the cone-sphere, the
radar cross section is approximately that of the sphere.
Radar Cross Section of Targets

The nose-on cross section of the cone-sphere varies, but its maximum
value is approximately 0.4λ2 and its minimum is 0.01λ2 for a wide range
of half-angles for frequencies above the Rayleigh region. The null
spacing is also relatively insensitive to the cone half-angle.
Radar cross section of a cone-sphere
 In order to realize in practice the very low theoretical values of the
radar cross section for a cone sphere, the tip of the cone must be
sharp and not rounded, the surface must be smooth (roughness
small compared to a wavelength), the join between the cone and
the sphere must have a continuous first derivative, and there must
be no holes, windows, or protuberances on the surface.

 Shaping of the target, as with the cone-sphere, is a good method

for reducing the radar cross section. Materials such as carbon-
fiber composites, which are sometimes used in aerospace
applications, can further reduce the radar cross section of targets
as compared with that produced by highly reflecting metallic
materials.
Radar Cross Section of Targets

comparison of nose-on σ for several cone

shaped objects
 Transmitter Power
The peak power: The power Pt in the radar equation is called the peak
power. This is not the instantaneous peak power of a sine wave. It is the
power averaged over that carrier-frequency cycle which occurs at the
maximum power of the pulse.

The average radar power Pav: It is defined as the average transmitter

power over the pulse-repetition period. If the transmitted waveform is a
train of rectangular pulses of width τ and pulse-repetition period
Tp = 1/ f p , then the average power is related to the peak power by

Duty cycle: The ratio Pav/Pt, τ/TP, or τ.fP is called the duty cycle of the
radar. A pulse radar for detection of aircraft might have typically a duty
cycle of 0.001, while a CW radar which transmits continuously has a
duty cycle of unity.
 Transmitter Power
Writing the radar equation in terms of the average power rather than the
peak power, we get

The bandwidth and the pulse width are grouped together since the
product of the two is usually of the order of unity in most pulse-
radar applications.
Pulse Repetition Frequencies and
Range Ambiguities
The pulse repetition frequency (prf) is determined primarily by the
maximum range at which targets are expected. If the prf is made too
high, the likelihood of obtaining target echoes from the wrong pulse
transmission is increased. Echo signals received after an interval
exceeding the pulse-repetition period are called multiple time
around echoes.
Consider the three targets labeled A, B, and C in the figure(a) below.
Target A is located within the maximum unambiguous range
Runamb [= C.TP /2] of the radar, target B is at a distance greater
than Runamb but less than 2Runamb and the target C is greater
than 2Runamb but less than 3Runamb
The appearance of the three targets on an A-scope is shown in the
figure (b)below. The multiple-time-around echoes on the A-scope
cannot be distinguished from proper target echoes actually within
the maximum unambiguous range. Only the range measured for
target A is correct; those for B and C are not.
Pulse Repetition Frequencies and
Range Ambiguities
One method of distinguishing multiple-time-around echoes from
unambiguous echoes is to operate with a varying pulse repetition frequency.
The echo signal from an unambiguous range target will appear at the same
place on the A-scope on each sweep no matter whether the prf is modulated
or not. However, echoes from multiple-time-around targets will be spread
over a finite range as shown in the figure (c) below. The number of separate
pulse repetition frequencies will depend upon the degree of the multiple time
around targets. Second-time targets need only two separate repetition
frequencies in order to be resolved.
Pulse Repetition Frequencies and
Range Ambiguities
 RADAR PRARAMETERS
The important parameters of radar antenna discussed here, in brief, are as follows:
Directivity or Directive gain
Power gain
Effective receiving aperture
Polarizations
Side lobes
Front to Back ratio
Beam efficiency

Directivity or Directive gain :

The directivity of an antenna is given by the ratio of the intensity of the maximum
radiation (power per unit solid angle) u(θ, Φ) mass to the average radiation intensity
Uav(average over a sphere) or it may be defined as at a certain distance from the antenna
the directivity may be expressed as the ratio of the maximum to the average Poynting
vector.
 RADAR PRARAMETERS
The smaller the beam’s solid angle, the greater the directivity.
The ability of a radar antenna to concentrate energy in a particular direction is
known as Gain.
The directive gain may be written as the average radiation intensity over a solid
angle of 4π radians is equal to the total power radiated divided by 4π

Power gain:
The power gain which is denoted by (G), includes the effect of the antenna
losses and any other related losses, which reduces the antenna efficiency.
In the directive gain definition, we have not considered the losses such as
ohmic heating, RF heating, or mismatched antenna, we have considered only
the radiation pattern, But these losses are taken into account while calculating
the power gain.
It may be defined as the ratio of maximum radiation intensity from a particular
antenna to the radiation intensity from an isotropic source with some power
input.
The directive gain is always more significant than the power gain. if there are no
losses, both gains are more or less equal to each other.
Both are related by the radiation efficiency factor and can be defined as:
 RADAR PRARAMETERS
Effective Aperture:
One of the critical parameters related to the gain is the effective receiving aperture
or total scattering cross-section or effective area. It may be considered a measure of
the effective area presented by the antenna to the incident wave.

We know from the Radar Range Equation that

Wave Polarization:
Wave polarization is defined as the orientation of electric field vector E at a given instant of time in
space.There are three types of polarization:
Linear Polarization: A plane electromagnetic wave in which an electric vector vibrates
simply harmonically along a fixed straight line perpendicular to the direction
propagation without changing its orientation is called a plane-polarized
electromagnetic wave.
Elliptical Polarization: Let us consider the case of two plane-polarized electromagnetic
waves which superimpose each other. Now the resultant vector rotates under certain
conditions. If both the magnitude and orientation of the electric field vector E vary
continuously, then the tip of the vector traces an ellipse. The wave is said to be
elliptically polarized.
Circular Polarization: In the above case, if the magnitude of the resultant vector remains
constant but orientation varies continuously then the tip of the vector E traces a
circle. The wave is said to be circularly polarized.
 RADAR PRARAMETERS

Major and Minor Lobes:

The figure shown in the figure has radiation concentrated in several lobes. The
radiation intensity in one lobe is considerably stronger than the other. The strongest
lobe is called the Major lobe and the other side is the minor lobe.
In general, maror lobes are those in which the greatest amount of radiation occurs. Side
it minor lobes are those in which the radiation intensity is least. The level of side lobes
should be of the order of 20 to 30 dB below the main beam and it can be achieved easily
with the practical antenna. To achieve very low side lobes is quite difficult practically
due to limitations imposed by nature but theoretically, there is no reason why it should
not be possible.
 RADAR PRARAMETERS
Front-to-Back Ration:
The front-to-back ratio of an antenna is the proportion of energy radiated n the principal
direction of radiation to the energy radiated in the opposite direction.
A high front-to-back ratio is desirable because this means that a minimum amount of energy
is radiated in the undesired direction.

Beam Efficiency:
Beam efficiency is also an important parameter to judge the quality of the transmitting
and receiving antenna.

where,ΩA​, is the total beam area solid angle and consists of the main beam (ΩM​) and the main
lobe area (Ωm​)
 System Losses
 The losses in a radar system reduce the signal-to-noise ratio at the receiver
output. They are two kinds, predictable with certain precision beforehand
and unpredictable. The antenna beam-shape loss, collapsing loss, and
losses in the microwave plumbing are examples of losses which are
predictable if the system configuration is known. These losses are real and
cannot be ignored.

 Losses not readily subject to calculation and which are less predictable
include those due to field degradation and to operator fatigue or lack of
operator motivation. They are subject to considerable variation and
uncertainty.

 Plumbing loss: This is loss in the transmission lines which connects

the transmitter output to the antenna. (Cables and waveguides). At the
lower radar frequencies the transmission line introduces little loss, unless
its length is exceptionally long. At higher radar frequencies,
loss/attenuation will not be small and has to be taken into account.
 System Losses
Connector losses: In addition to the losses in the transmission line itself,
additional losses occurs at each connection or bend in the line and at the
antenna rotary joint if used. Connector losses are usually small, but if the
connection is poorly made, it can contribute significant attenuation. If the
same transmission line is used for both receiving and transmission, the loss
to be inserted in the radar equation is twice the one-way loss.

Duplexer loss: The signal suffers attenuation as it passes through the

duplexer. Generally, the greater the isolation required from the duplexer on
transmission, the larger will be the insertion loss. Insertion loss means the
loss introduced when the component is inserted into the transmission line.
For a typical duplexer it might be of the order of 1 dB.

In S-band (3000 MHz) radar, for example, the typical plumbing losses will be
as follows:
100 ft of RG-113/U A1 waveguide transmission line (two-way):1.0 dB
Loss due to poor connections (estimate):0.5 dB
Rotary-joint loss:0.4 dB
Duplexer loss:1.5 dB
Total plumbing loss:3.4 dB
 System Losses
 Beam-shape loss: The antenna gain that appears in the radar equation
was assumed to be a constant equal to the maximum value. But in reality the
train of pulses returned from a target with scanning radar is modulated in
amplitude by the shape of the antenna beam. To properly take into account
the pulse-train modulation caused by the beam shape, the computations of
the probability of detection (as explained earlier) would have to be
performed assuming a modulated train of pulses rather than constant-
amplitude pulses. But since this computation is difficult, a beam-shape loss
is added to the radar equation and a maximum gain is employed in the radar
equation rather than a gain that changes pulse to pulse.

 Scanning loss: When the antenna scans rapidly enough , the gain on
transmit is not the same as the gain on receive. An additional loss has to be
computed, called the scanning loss. The technique for computing scanning
loss is similar in principle to that for computing beam-shape loss. Scanning
loss is important for rapid-scan antennas or for very long range radars such
as those designed to view extraterrestrial objects.
 Collapsing loss: If the radar were to integrate additional noise samples
along with the wanted Signal-to-noise pulses, the added noise results in
degradation called the collapsing loss.
 System Losses
 Non ideal equipment: The transmitter power in the radar equation
was assumed to be the specified output power (either peak or
average). However, all transmitting tubes are not uniform in quality,
and even any individual tube performance will not be same
throughout its useful life. Also, the power is not uniform over the
operating band of frequencies. Thus, for one reason or another, the
transmitted power may be other than the design value. To allow for
this variation, a loss factor of about 2 dB is introduced.
 Operator loss: An alert, motivated, and well-trained operator
performs as described by theory. However, when distracted, tired,
overloaded, or not properly trained, operator performance will
decrease. The resulting loss in system performance is called
operator loss.
 Receiver noise figure also varies over the operating frequency band.
Thus, if the best noise figure over the band is used in the radar
equation, a loss factor has to be introduced to account for its poorer
value elsewhere in the frequency band. If the receiver is not the
exact matched filter for the transmitted waveform, a loss in Signal-
to-noise ratio will occur.A typical value of loss for a non-matched
receiver might be about 1 dB.
Problems
We will see that Radars work by…

Transmitting microwave pulses….

and measuring the …

• Time delay (range)
• Amplitude
• Polarization
• Frequency

… of the microwave echo in each range gate

Compare to: Acoustic Echo-location

hello
Acoustic Echo-location

hello
Acoustic Echo-location

hello

distance
 Hi !!

Hi !!

time

t = 2 x range / speed of sound

Example: range = 150 m
Speed of sound ≈ 340 meters/second
t = 2 X 150 / 340 ≈ 1 second
 RADAR Echolocation
(RADAR ~ RAdio Detection And Ranging)
“Microwave Echo-Location”

Tx

Rx
Microwave
Transmitter

Receiver
 Target Range
Tx
Rx

time

t = 2 x range / speed of light

measure t, then determine Range

Example: t = .001 sec

Speed of light = c = 3x108 meters/second
Range = .001 x 3x108 / 2 = 150,000 m = 150 km
 Range ambiguity
 The radar time is set to zero each time
a pulse is transmitted
 If echo signals from the first pulse
arrive after the second pulse
transmission, ambiguity arises

Maximum unambiguous range

 Pulse Radar Components

Synchronizer Transmitter

RF
Ou
t
Power Duplexer ANT.
Supply

Ino
Ech
Display Unit Receiver

Antenna Control
Continuous Wave Radar

Continual energy transmission

Separate transmit/receive antennas

Relies on “DOPPLER SHIFT”

Doppler Frequency Shifts

Motion Away:
Echo Frequency Decreases

Motion Towards:
Echo Frequency Increases
Doppler Effect
 Continuous Wave Radar
Components
Transmitter Antenna
CW RF
Oscillator OUT

Discriminator AMP Mixer IN

Antenna

Indicator
 Pulse Vs. Continuous Wave

Pulse Echo Continuous Wave

Single antenna Requires 2 antennae
Gives range, usually Range or Altitude info
altitude as well High SNR
Susceptible to jamming More difficult to jam but
Range determined by easily deceived
PW and PRF Can be tuned to look
for frequencies
 RADAR Wave Modulation
 Amplitude Modulation
– Vary the amplitude of the carrier sine wave
 Frequency Modulation
– Vary the frequency of the carrier sine wave
 Pulse-Amplitude Modulation
– Vary the amplitude of the pulses
 Pulse-Frequency Modulation
– Vary the Frequency at which the pulses occur
 Antennae
Two basic purposes:
– Radiates RF energy
– Provides beam forming and energy focusing

Must be 1/2 the wave length for maximum wave

length employed
Wide beam pattern for search
Narrow beam pattern for tracking
Beamwidth Vs. Accuracy

Beamwidth vs Accuracy

Ship A Ship B
Determining Azimuth Angular
Measurement

Azimuth Angular Measurement

Relative Bearing = Angle from ship’s heading.
True Bearing = Ship’s Heading + Relative Bearing

Ship’s Heading
N Angle

Target Angle
Determining Altitude

Determining Altitude

Altitude

Angle of Elevation

Altitude = slant range x sin0 elevation

 Concentrating Radar Energy
Through Beam Formation
Linear Arrays
– Uses following principles
Wave summation (constructive interference)
Wave cancellation (destructive interference)
– Made up of two or more simple ½ wave antennae
– Example – Aegis Radar

Quasi-optical
– Uses reflectors and “lenses” to shape the beam
 Wave Guides
Used as a medium for
high energy shielding.
Uses magnetic field to
keep energy centered
in the wave guide.
Filled with an inert gas
to prevent arcing due to
high voltages within the
wave guide.
Questions?