Contaminants/Toxins in Feeds/Feedstuffs and Animals

Plant/Feed/Animal Contaminants/Toxicants (ANFs – Anti – nutritional factors)

• The antinutritional factors (ANFS) are defined as those substances generated in natural
food or feeds stuffs by normal metabolism of the species from which the material
originates and by different mechanisms (e.g. inactivation of some nutrients, diminution
of the digestive process, or metabolic utilization of feed) which exert effects contrary to
optimum nutrition. (Kumar, 1992).
• The utility of the leaves, pods and edible twigs of shrubs and trees as well as some
animal by – products as animal feed is limited by the presence of ANFs
• They are constituents in various feedstuffs, including animal products/by-products
which usually produce harmful effects in livestock consuming them.
• They may be naturally occurring toxicants in feedstuffs.
• They may be toxic metabolites produced in feeds/feedstuffs by various spp of fungi,
e.g., Aspergillus, Penicillium, etc.
 Types of contaminants/toxins in feeds and animals

•Environmental contaminants – pesticides, industrial pollution, farm

wastes, certain fertilizers e.g. cadmium
•Microbial – Bacterial contaminants e.g. Escherichia coli (dominant
in animal feeds), Fungal contaminants e.g. Mycotoxins (Aflatoxins
(dominant in oil seeds), Aspergillus (dominant in dairy and feeds)).
•Plant toxins, e.g., antinutritive factors/antifeedants
•Animal toxins e.g. BSE(bovine spongiform encephalopathy)
 Plant Secondary Metabolites (PSMs)/ Anti-nutritional factors (ANFs)/
Phytochemicals/Antifeedants/ Allelochemicals

• Plants contain thousands of compounds, which, depending upon their situations, can
have beneficial or deleterious effects on organisms consuming them. These
compounds, with the exception of nutrients are also called allelochemicals.
• Antinutritional/Antinutritive factors (ANFs) are the physical and chemical features of
plants potentially available for feeding, grazing or browsing which result in lower
level of animal productivity.
• They are substances generated in natural feedstuffs by the normal metabolism of
species and by different mechanism e.g. inactivation of some nutrients, interference
with the digestive process or metabolic utilization of feed which exert effects contrary
to optimum nutrition
• These represent a diverse group of natural products, some of which may be
nutritionally valuable but most of which have no nutritional value, are anti-nutritional
or may be toxic.
• The PSMs are bioactive phytochemicals that are produced in response to specific
signals, and provide an important link between the plant, potential predators and the
environment in which they both live.
Characteristics/Properties of ANFs in plants

• As a means of storing nutrients

• As a means of defending their structure and reproductive elements
against predators and microbial infection
• Acting as volatile attractants, in some cases, to promote pollination
by birds and insects
• ANFs diminish animal productivity e.g. interfering with enzyme
functions and inhibiting the synthesis of proteins
• To withstand stress
• Some also have positive nutritional roles in plants (especially in N-
containing PSMs during germination of seeds ) and animals e.g.
condensed tannins, about 2-4% in the diet of cows/dairy animals to
coat dietary proteins and make them unavailable for degradation
by rumen microbes and therefore are termed by-pass
proteins/Undegradable rumen proteins.
Factors affecting the presence and levels of ANFs in plants

• Physiological age of the plant

• The species of plants
• The part of the plant cut
• The environment in which the plant is growing
• The processing methods adopted
• etc.
Effects on animals that consumed ANFs
• Interfere with the digestion of feedstuffs/feed ingredients.
• Interfere with the metabolism of various nutrients in the body of the animal.
• Prevent absorption of nutrients from rumen or intestine.
• Interfere with the utilization of other nutrients present in feeds/feedstuffs.
• May finally lead to death of the animal that consumed the ANF(s).
Classifications of ANFs in Plants
A. Classification based on chemical constituents/structures

• 1. Protein and Non-protein amino acids e.g. . Phytohaemaglutinins especially in legumes

e.g. Soybean, Ricin, etc., Typsin inhibitors, Protease inhibitors, Mimosine, DOPA
(dihydroxyphenyl alanine)
• 2. Glycosides:
• a. Cyanogens
• b. Saponins
• c. Coumarin
• 3. Phenols/Polyphenolic compounds (present in all vascular plants) e.g.
• a. Tannins
• b. Lignin
• c. Gossypol
• d. Phytate
• 4.Alkaloids
• 5. Triterpenes e.g. Azadirachtin, saponins, latex, lignin, cutin
• 6 Metal – binding toxicants, e.g., Oxalate
B. Based on effects of various treatments

• 1. Based on heat treatment

- Heat labile phytochemicals, i.e. they can be destroyed by heat treatment: detoxify
through application of heat, even though detoxification may not be complete (e.g.
soybeans) e.g. trypsin – inhibitors, lectins, cyanogens, tannins etc.
- Heat stable: e.g. condensed tannins, gossypol, saponins, non-protein amino acids, phyto-
oestrogens, glusosinolates etc.
• 2. Based on water treatment
- Many of these ANFs are water soluble
- They can be removed/reduced by water soaking and washing.
3. Based on specific enzyme and chemical treatments.
4. Based on combinations of treatments, e.g. water soaking, washing and drying, chemical
treatment and drying, etc.
C. Based on Nutrients Affected After Ingestion by Livestock

• Depressing digestion and metabolic utilization of proteins, e.g.,

Tannins, Saponins, Protein and Non-protein amino acids,
• Reducing solubility or interfering with utilizations of minerals by
chelating, e.g., Oxalic, Phytic, Gossypol, etc.
• Inactivating or increasing the requirements of certain hormones and
vitamins, e.g.. Antivitamins of fat soluble vitamins, Mimosine, etc.
• Affecting ATP production, thereby leading to death, e.g., HCN,
Nitrates/Nitrites, etc.
SOME IMPORTANT PLANT TOXINS
1. Non-protein amino acid: Mimosine
• it is a non-protein amino acid.
• It occurs in a few spp of Mimosa and those closely allied to the genus Leucaena.
• In L. leucocephala (Ipil ipil), the level of mimosine in the leaf is about 2-6%, however, this varies with seasons and plant
maturity.
• In Leucaena leucocephala, mimosine, under certain condition, is converted to another toxic compound/secondary
metabolite called 3-hydroxy-4-1(H)-pyridone (3, 4-DHP) and both have different effects on animals.
• There is also a certain endogenous plant enzyme present in leaves and seeds that is capable of catalyzing this conversion.
• The toxicity of Leucaena is believed to be from mimosine and 3,4-DHP, which will be further degraded into its isomer 2,3-
dihydroxypyridine (2,3-DHP) in the rumen.
• Yet, conversion to these intermediates does not detoxify the toxicity.
• Generally, ruminants (cattle, sheep, and goats) are better at tolerating Leucaena than non-ruminants (horses, pigs and
poultry) due to the presence of micro flora in the rumen.
• 3, 4-DHP is goitrogenic
• Mimosine is not goitrogenic but its degradation product, DHP is a potent goitrogen. Mimosine causes low weight gains,
general poor condition and hair/feather loss (alopecia) in ruminants and monogastric animals.
• Diverse reports have been reported in the use of Ipil ipil by monogastric animals. Heating and sundrying have been found to
reduce mimosine contents of the leaves.
• Certain parts of Leucaena contain the enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of mimosine to DHP, pyruvic acid and ammonia.
When intact Leucaena leaves are subjected to temperatures up to 45°C, very little autolysis occurs. At temperatures higher
than 70°C, the enzyme is denatured. Another method to bring about autolysis is through maceration of the tissues. The
enzyme becomes inactive at pH levels lower than 4.0.
• In ruminants, therefore, the ingestion of mimosine from fresh Leucaena is accompanied by ingestion of DHP in the rumen.
• The conversion would continue until virtually complete in ruminants but would be halted in monogastric animals by the acid
in the stomach.
• In non-ruminants mimosine toxicity causes alopecia, eye cataracts, poor growth and reproductive problems. More than 5-
10% of Leucaena meal of the diet for poultry, rabbit and swine generally result in poor growth, reproduction and
performancePhysical treatment like heat treatment and chemical treatment and supplementation with amino acids or with
metal ions such as, and Fe, Al and Zn reduces the mimosine toxicity
• Goats in Indonesia and Hawaii, however, have the ability to detoxify DHP to non-toxic products due to the presence of certain
2. Cyanogens
• Cyanogens occur widely in plants and in diverse forms and they are glycosides of a sugar and cyanide containing aglycone.
• These compounds have a wide distribution among higher plants but are also present in insects and fungi.
• Cyanogens are hydrolysed by enzymes to release hydrocyanic acid (HCN).
• Cyanogenic compounds are compounds which liberate HCN, one or more molecules of sugar, and with one exception, an aldehyde
or ketone on treatment with dilute acid or the appropriate hydrolytic enzymes.
• Various plants are potentially toxic because they contain glycosides from which HCN may be released by hydrolysis through the
action of an enzyme present in the plant tissues. Damage to plant tissues results in the release of the enzyme.
• Hydrolysis occurs rapidly when such plants are exposed to heat and most of the liberated HCN are lost by volatilization.
• The hydrolytic reactions can take place in the rumen by microbial activity. Hence, ruminants are more susceptible to CN toxicity
than monogastric animals.
• The HCN is absorbed and is rapidly detoxified in the liver by the enzyme rhodanese/thiosulphate cyanide sulphur transferase,
which converts CN to thiocyanate (SCN).
• Excess cyanide ions inhibit the cytochrome oxidase and this stops ATP formation.
• Tissues suffer energy deprivation, asphyxiation, and death follows.
• The lethal dose of HCN for cattle and sheep is 2.0 – 4.0mg/kg body weight.
• Presence of soluble carbohydrates in the diets of ruminants feeding on plants rich in cyanogens has been reported to reduce
cyanide toxicity in ruminants.
• Cyanide has also been found to be goitrogenic.
• It has been reported that where HCN is reduced to below 100ppm, as in cassava flour/chips, such can be safely incorporated into
rations and consumed by livestock.
3. Saponins

• Two groups of saponins are known: they are steroid or triterpenoid glycosides common in plants and plant
products that are of importance in man and animal nutrition.
• These structural diverse compounds have been observed to kill protozoa and mollusks, to be antioxidants,
impair the digestion of protein and the uptake of vitamins in the gut, cause hypoglycaemia and act as
antifungal and antiviral agents.
• Saponins are characterized by bitter taste and foaming properties.
• Triterpenoid saponins: are predominantly present in cultivated crops, e.g. soyabean and alfalfa
• Steroid saponins: common in plants used as herbs or for their health – promoting properties.
• Steroid saponins occur as glycosides in certain pasture plants
• Saponins act on the cardiovascular, nervous and digestive systems.
• Feedstuffs containing saponin have been shown to be defaunating (Destroyal/removal/killer of rumen
protozoa) agents.
• They are capable of reducing methane production in ruminants, which of importance in protection of the
ozone layer.
• If consumed in excess, may lead to bloat syndrome and inhibition of microbial fermentation in ruminants.
4. Tannins
• Tannins are water soluble polyphenolic compounds.
• They occur in all vascular plants.
• All plants contain phenolic compounds but their type or
concentration may cause negative animal responses.
• Their presence reduce protein digestibility in farm animals.
• Two general groups: hydrolysable and condensed tannins.
• Condensed tannin is resistant to hydrolytic degradation and it has
more profound digestibility – reducing effect on animals than
hydrolysable tannin.
• However, condensed tannin has been found to increase N-recycling in
the rumen and saliva and this improves tannin-microbial protein
synthesis.
• Condensed tannin has been reported to reduce faecal parasitic egg-
count in ruminants and also brings about bloat suppression.
• 2-4% of Condensed tannin has been reported to be desirable to form
tannin-protein complexes in ruminant nutrition, which is of
5. Alkaloids
• They are a group of compounds with the common property of
containing N in their molecular structure, e.g. solanine, caffeine,
threobromine.
• Some are phenylpropanoid substances e.g. lignin, coumarins,
flavones, isoflavones, tannins, etc. or terpenoids, e.g. essential oils,
saponin, steroids, latex, etc.
• They exhibit pharmacological actions as well as inhibitory activity
towards digestion.
6. Lignin
• It is a polyphenolic compound and a non-carbohydrate substance.
• It resists digestion.
• The character of lignin varies with plant spp.
• All forage lignin contain N that is unavailable to animal digestion.
7. Phytic acid and phytates/ Oxalic acid and
oxalates
• Phytic acid and phytates are found in forages, hulls of seeds, grains and nuts.
• Phytic acid has a strong binding affinity to minerals such as Ca, Mg, Fe, Co, Mo
and Zn.
• This results in precipitation, making the minerals unavailable for absorption in the
intestines.
• Oxalates can be soluble or insoluble.
• Oxalate is widespread in plants and comprises Ca and Mg salts.
• Oxalic acid and oxalates chelate Ca and prevent its absorption.
• This has implications in bone formation, mucous membrane of the stomach and
intestines of livestock.
• Ca oxalate is, however, available to ruminants.
8. Flavonoids
• They are a group of polyphenolic compounds that include tannins.
• They chelate metals like Zn, Fe and reduce their absorption.
• They inhibit digestive enzymes and may precipitate proteins.
9. Lectins, Protease inhibitors, Goitrogens
• Haemaglutinins/Lectins are proteins that are generally present in the form of
glycoproteins. They vary considerably in their molecular weight and chemical
structure and are characterized by an ability to bind to specific sugars. They are
a group of substances which can agglutinate red blood cells (RBCs) by virtue of
their specificity for glycoprotein receptor sites om the cell surface. High
presence in the guts of monogastric animals may lead to anorexia, paralysis, etc.
• Protease inhibitors are substances that inhibit the actions of trypsin, pepsin
and other proteases in the gut, preventing the digestion and absorption of
proteins e.g. Bowman-Birk trypsin inhibitor is found in soybeans. They are
common throughout the plant kingdom especially edible legumes.
• Goitrogens common in legumes and soybean has been reported to contain a
heat-labile factor which causes goiter in animals and man.
10. Inorganic Toxicants: Salts
• Excess NaCl in diets leads to increased dehydration.
• Excess Se leads to loss of hair on tails, stiff joint, etc.
• Excess Mo may lead to weight loss, scouring in young ruminants, etc.
Microbial Toxins
Mycotoxins: Fungi
• They are not natural and normal constituents of feeds/feedstuffs.
• They are toxic metabolites produced in feeds/feedstuffs by various spp of fungi
belonging to Aspergillus, Aflatoxins, Penicillium, Fusarium, etc.
• Most of the time, they occur due to poor processing and storage of
feeds/feedstuffs, especially the oil – based types.
• Many mycotoxins, with different chemical structures and biological activities,
have been identified.
• Mycotoxins may be carcinogenic (e.g. aflatoxin B1, ochratoxin A, fumonisin B1),
oestrogenic, neurotoxic (fumonisin B1), nephrotoxic (ochratoxins, citrinin,
oosporeine), dermonecrotic or immunosuppressive (aflatoxin B1, ochratoxin A)
Animal toxins
ASSIGNMENT
Write briefly on
• BSE in ruminants
Antidotes:
 Plant breeding
 Mixing of forages/forage + concentrates or other AIBs
(dilution effect)
 Do not feed plants with high levels of ANFs solely for a long
time.
 Further processing: with heat, ensiling, chemical treatments
(e.g. alkali treatment of tannin rich forages/feedstuffs using
polyethylene glycol (PEG)) etc.
 Feeding ANF – rich feeds at reduced rate
 Supplementation of the diets e.g. with sulphur (in cassava –
based diets), amino acids, etc.
 Ensuring feeds are free of foreign materials e.g.
fungi/microbes
 In animals, by destroying all affected animal – based feed
XENOBIOTIC(S)
• It is a foreign, chemical substance which is found within a living
organism that is not normally naturally produced by the organism.
• Xenobiotics are also defined as chemical compounds such as
pesticides and polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, etc., that are
present in, but foreign to biological systems.
• They are substances that are foreign to a biological system and did
not exist in nature before their synthesis by animals or humans.
• They occur due to agriculture, mining, industrialization, permitted
and unpermitted discharges and spills, etc.
• Most of these chemical compounds are subjected to metabolism
leading to their chemical alterations, in the human/livestock , with
the liver being the main organ involved.
• The body of an animal removes xenobiotics by xenobiotic
metabolism through their deactivation and excretion by hepatic
enzymes .
• Excretion routes are faeces, breath, urine and sweat.
• Hepatic enzymes are responsible for the metabolism.
 Metabolism of xenobiotics is in two phases:

• Phase 1: Hydroxylation catalyzed by some enzymes collectively called

monoxygenases e.g. hepatic Cytochrome P450. These enzymes also
caralyze a wide range of reactions - deamination, reduction,
hydrolysis, etc.
• Phase 2: The hydroxylated or other compounds produced in Phase 1
are converted by specific enzymes to various polar metabolites by
conjugation glucuronic acid, acetate, certain amino acids, sulphuric
acid and glutathione followed by excretion in the bile or urine.
Factors affecting activities of xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes and
toxicity of xenobiotics

• Activities of xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes are influenced by the

age of the animal, sex, spp, level of xenobiotic in the body, etc.
• The toxicity of xenobiotics also differs from spp to spp, genetic
factors, presence of diseases, the type of metabolites formed,
functional state of the animal’s kidneys and liver, etc.
Toxicity of xenobiotics:

• Cytotoxicity (cell injury): death of cells may occur

• The reactive spp of a xenobiotic may bind to a protein thereby
altering its antigenicity. Such xenobiotic is then said to act as a
hapten, which does not stimulate antibody synthesis but combines
with an antibody. The hapten-antibody so formed damages cells
through immunologic mechanism thereby affecting normal cellular
biochemical reactions.
• Reactions of activated xenobiotic metabolites, e.g. carcinogens with
DNA, may lead to mutation.
• Note: the term, Xenobiotic, is also used for organ transplant from one
spp to another.
ASSIGNMENT
• Cyanogenic glycoside(s) in cassava, bitter leaf, sorghum, bamboo
• Boiling and melting points of HCN
• Another unit that can be used to replace ppm
• A browse plant (growing in Nigeria) that contains coumarin as a major
ANF in it, apart from the presence of others
• Specific ANF(s) in leguminous seeds: groundnut and soybeans; and in
cotton seed meal