Research Methodology For

Agri-Business Management

DR. SARIKA KOLUGURI,

B.SC, B.ED, MBA, PH.D,(PDF)ICSSR
 What is research?

RESEARCH CAN BE DEFINED

AS THE SEARCH FOR
KNOWLEDGE OR AS ANY
SYSTEMATIC INVESTIGATION
TO ESTABLISH FACTS.
Characteristics of Research

Systematic - Identify and label variables

Logical - Examination of procedure
Empirical - Collect data to base conclusion
Reductive - take individual data
Replicable - reproducible
 Types of Research

• PURE AND APPLIED RESEARCH

• EXPLORATORY OR FORMULATIVE RESEARCH
• DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH OR EX POST FACTO
• DIAGNOSTIC STUDY
• EVALUATION STUDIES
• ACTION RESEARCH
• EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
• ANALYTICAL STUDY OR STATISTICAL METHOD
• HISTORICAL RESEARCH
• SURVEYS
• CASE STUDY
Pure and Applied Research
PURE

•IT IS THE STUDY OF THE SEARCH FOR KNOWLEDGE.

•APPLIED

•IT IS THE STUDY OF FINDING A SOLUTION TO A PROBLEM.

Purpose of Pure and Applied Research

PURE

• It can contribute new facts

• It can put theory to the rest
• It may aid in conceptual clarification
• It may integrate previously existing theories.
APPLIED

• It offers solutions to many practical problems.

• To find the critical factors in a practical problem.
Exploratory or Formulative Research

EXPLORATORY

EXPLORATORY RESEARCH IS A PRELIMINARY STUDY OF AN

UNFAMILIAR PROBLEM ABOUT WHICH THE RESEARCHER HAS
LITTLE OR NO KNOWLEDGE.
 Purpose

• TO GENERATE NEW IDEAS.

• TO INCREASE THE RESEARCHER’S
FAMILIARITY WITH THE PROBLEM.
• TO MAKE A PRECISE FORMULATION OF
THE PROBLEM.
• TO GATHER INFORMATION FOR
CLARIFYING CONCEPTS.
• TO DETERMINE WHETHER IT IS FEASIBLE
TO ATTEMPT THE STUDY.
 Descriptive Research

• A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY IS A FACT-FINDING

INVESTIGATION WITH ADEQUATE
INTERPRETATION.
• IT IS THE SIMPLEST TYPE OF RESEARCH.
• IT IS DESIGNED TO GATHER DESCRIPTIVE
INFORMATION AND PROVIDES INFORMATION
FOR FORMULATING MORE SOPHISTICATED
STUDIES
• DATA ARE COLLECTED USING OBSERVATION,
INTERVIEW, AND MAIL QUESTIONNAIRES.
 Purpose

• IT CAN FOCUS DIRECTLY ON A THEORETICAL POINT.

• IT CAN HIGHLIGHT IMPORTANT METHODOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF DATA
COLLECTION AND INTERPRETATION.

• IT OBTAINED IN A RESEARCH MAY BE USEFUL FOR PREDICTION ABOUT AREAS OF

SOCIAL LIFE OUTSIDE IN THE BOUNDARIES OF RESEARCH.

• DESCRIPTIVE STUDIES ARE VALUABLE IN PROVIDING FACTS NEEDED FOR

PLANNING SOCIAL ACTION PROGRAMS.
 Diagnostic Study

IT IS DIRECTED TOWARD DISCOVERING

WHAT IS HAPPENING, WHY IS IT
HAPPENING AND WHAT CAN BE DONE
ABOUT IT.

IT AIMS AT IDENTIFYING THE CAUSES OF A

PROBLEM AND THE POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS
FOR IT.
 Purpose

THIS STUDY MAY ALSO BE CONCERNED WITH

DISCOVERING AND TESTING WHETHER
CERTAIN VARIABLES ARE ASSOCIATED.
TO DETERMINE THE FREQUENCY WITH WHICH
SOMETHING OCCURS OR WITH WHICH IT IS
ASSOCIATED WITH SOMETHING ELSE.
 Evaluation Studies
• IT IS ONE TYPE OF APPLIED RESEARCH.
• IT IS MADE FOR ASSESSING THE
EFFECTIVENESS OF SOCIAL OR ECONOMIC
PROGRAMS IMPLEMENTED OR FOR
ASSESSING THE IMPACT OF
DEVELOPMENTAL PROJECTS AREA.
• THE DETERMINATION OF THE RESULTS
ATTAINED BY SOME ACTIVITY DESIGNED TO
ACCOMPLISH SOME VALUED GOAL OR
OBJECTIVES.
 Purpose
• IT IS DIRECTED TO ASSESS OR APPRAISE THE QUALITY
AND QUANTITY OF AN ACTIVITY AND ITS PERFORMANCE.
• TO SPECIFY THE ATTRIBUTES AND CONDITIONS
REQUIRED FOR ITS SUCCESS.
 Action Research

THE RESEARCHER ATTEMPTS TO STUDY ACTION. E.G.

ERADICATION OF MALARIA, MARITIME NAVIGATION
ACTION RESEARCH IS A REFLECTIVE PROCESS OF
PROGRESSIVE PROBLEM-SOLVING LED BY INDIVIDUALS
WORKING WITH OTHERS IN TEAMS OR AS PART OF A
"COMMUNITY OF PRACTICE" TO IMPROVE THE WAY THEY
ADDRESS ISSUES AND SOLVE PROBLEMS
 Purpose
• A BASELINE SURVEY OF THE PRE-ACTION
SITUATION
• A FEASIBILITY STUDY OF THE PROPOSED
ACTION PROGRAM
• PLANNING AND LAUNCHING THE PROGRAM
• CONCURRENT EVALUATION OF THE
PROGRAM
• MAKING MODIFICATIONS AND CHANGES IN
THE PROGRAM.
 Experimental Research
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH IS COMMONLY USED IN SCIENCES
SUCH AS SOCIOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY, PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY,
BIOLOGY, AND MEDICINE, ETC.

IT IS A SYSTEMATIC AND SCIENTIFIC APPROACH TO RESEARCH IN

WHICH THE RESEARCHER MANIPULATES ONE OR MORE
VARIABLES, AND CONTROLS AND MEASURES ANY CHANGE IN
OTHER VARIABLES.
 Purpose

EXPERIMENTS ARE CONDUCTED TO BE ABLE TO PREDICT

PHENOMENONS.
TO MAINTAIN CONTROL OVER ALL FACTORS
A BLUEPRINT OF THE PROCEDURE THAT ENABLES THE
RESEARCHER TO TEST HIS HYPOTHESIS
 Analytical Study

ANALYTICAL STUDY IS A SYSTEM OF PROCEDURES

AND TECHNIQUES OF ANALYSIS APPLIED TO
QUANTITATIVE DATA.
A SYSTEM OF MATHEMATICAL MODELS OR
STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES APPLICABLE TO
NUMERICAL DATA.
EX. SCIENTOMETRICS
 Purpose

IT AIMS AT TESTING HYPOTHESIS AND SPECIFYING

AND INTERPRETING RELATIONSHIP.
IT CONCENTRATES ON ANALYZING DATA IN DEPTH
AND EXAMINING RELATIONSHIPS FROM VARIOUS
ANGLES BY BRINGING IN AS MANY RELEVANT
VARIABLES AS POSSIBLE IN THE ANALYSIS PLAN.
 Historical Research
• THE SYSTEMATIC COLLECTION AND EVALUATION OF DATA RELATED
TO PAST OCCURRENCES IN ORDER TO DESCRIBE CAUSES, EFFECTS,
AND TRENDS OF THOSE EVENTS THAT MAY HELP EXPLAIN PRESENT
EVENTS AND ANTICIPATE FUTURE EVENTS.
• DATA IS OFTEN ARCHIVAL-INCLUDING NEWSPAPER CLIPPINGS,
PHOTOGRAPHS, ETC.- AND MAY INCLUDE INTERVIEWS.
 Purpose

TO DRAW EXPLANATIONS AND GENERALIZATIONS FROM THE PAST TRENDS IN ORDER TO

UNDERSTAND THE PRESENT AND TO ANTICIPATE THE FUTURE.

IT ENABLES US TO GRASP OUR RELATIONSHIP WITH THE PAST AND TO PLAN MORE
INTELLIGENTLY FOR THE FUTURE.

THE PAST CONTAINS THE KEY TO THE PRESENT AND THE PAST AND THE PRESENT INFLUENCES
THE FUTURE.

IT HELPS US IN VISUALIZING THE SOCIETY AS A DYNAMIC ORGANISM AND ITS STRUCTURES AND
FUNCTIONS AS EVOLVING, STEADILY GROWING AND UNDERGOING CHANGE AND
TRANSFORMATION.
 Survey Research

SURVEY RESEARCH IS ONE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT AREAS OF

MEASUREMENT IN APPLIED SOCIAL RESEARCH. THE BROAD AREA OF
SURVEY RESEARCH ENCOMPASSES ANY MEASUREMENT PROCEDURES
THAT INVOLVE ASKING QUESTIONS OF RESPONDENTS. A "SURVEY" CAN
BE ANYTHING FORM A SHORT PAPER-AND-PENCIL FEEDBACK FORM TO AN
INTENSIVE ONE-ON-ONE IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW.
 Purpose
• IT IS ALWAYS CONDUCTED IN A NATURAL
SETTING.
• IT SEEKS RESPONSES DIRECTLY FROM THE
RESPONDENTS.
• IT CAN COVER A VERY LARGE POPULATION
• A SURVEY MAY INVOLVE AN EXTENSIVE STUDY
OR AN INTENSIVE STUDY.
• A SURVEY COVERS A DEFINITE GEOGRAPHICAL
AREA, A CITY, DISTRICT, STATE
 Case Study

A CASE STUDY IS A RESEARCH METHODOLOGY COMMON IN SOCIAL

SCIENCE.
IT IS BASED ON AN IN-DEPTH INVESTIGATION OF A SINGLE INDIVIDUAL,
GROUP, OR EVENT TO EXPLORE CAUSATION IN ORDER TO FIND
UNDERLYING PRINCIPLES
 Purpose

• TO EXAMINE A LIMITED NUMBER OF VARIABLES

• CASE STUDY METHODS INVOLVE AN IN-DEPTH, LONGITUDINAL
EXAMINATION OF A SINGLE INSTANCE OR EVENT.
• IT PROVIDES A SYSTEMATIC WAY OF LOOKING AT EVENTS,
COLLECTING DATA, ANALYZING INFORMATION, AND REPORTING THE
RESULTS
 Field research

FIELD RESEARCH HAS TRADITIONALLY BEEN THOUGHT DIFFERENT

FROM METHODS OF RESEARCH CONDUCTED IN A LABORATORY OR
ACADEMIC SETTING.
PURPOSE
THE ADVANTAGES OF FIELD RESEARCH ARE THAT PEOPLE ARE
CLOSER TO REAL WORLD CONDITIONS AND DESIGN THE RESEARCH
IN THE BEST WAY TO DISCOVER THE PARTICULAR INFORMATION
REQUIRED.
 Research Design

THE TERM “RESEARCH DESIGN” MEANS ‘DRAWING FOR

RESEARCH’.
IT IS A SYSTEMATIC PLANNING OF CONDUCTING RESEARCH.
IT AIMS TO ACHIEVE GOALS OF THE RESEARCH.
 Definition
‘ASTHE ARRANGEMENT OF CONDITIONS FOR COLLECTION
AND ANALYSIS OF DATA IN A MANNER THAT AIMS TO
COMBINE THE RELEVANCE TO THE RESEARCH PURPOSE
WITH ECONOMY IN PROCEDURE’-BY JAHODA

‘A MASTER PLAN, SPECIFYING THE METHODS AND

PROCEDURES FOR COLLECTING AND ANALYZING THE
NEEDED INFORMATION’-BY ZIKMUND
 Need and Purpose
• IT HELPS IN THE SMOOTH SAILING OF THE
RESEARCH PROCESS.
• IT SAVES MONEY, MANPOWER, AND
MATERIALS.
• IT HELPS THE RESEARCHERS WITH ADVANCE
PLANNING AND AVOIDS DUPLICATION.
• IT HELPS TO MODIFY THE RESEARCH IF ANY
DIFFICULTIES.
• IT GIVES REALITY TO RESEARCH.
 Research Design Process
• SELECTION OF RESEARCH TOPIC/PROBLEM,
• FRAMING RESEARCH DESIGN,
• FRAMING SAMPLING DESIGN,
• COLLECTION OF DATA,
• DATA ANALYSIS/EDITING, CODING, PROCESSING, AND
PRESERVATION
• WRITING RESEARCH REPORTS
Characteristics of Good Research
Design

THEORY-GROUNDED,
ENVIRONMENT,
FEASIBILITY OF IMPLEMENTATION,
REDUNDANCY,
EFFICIENT.

Cont…
IT SHOULD BE FLEXIBLE
IT SHOULD BE ECONOMICAL
IT SHOULD BE UNBIASED
IT SHOULD FULFILL THE OBJECTIVES OF THE
RESEARCH
IT SHOULD BE MORE APPROPRIATE TO ALL THE
ASPECTS OF RESEARCH.

Cont…
• IT SHOULD GUIDE HIM TO ACHIEVE CORRECT
RESULTS.
• IT PROVIDES SCIENTIFIC BASE FOR HIS RESEARCH.
• IT ALSO SHOULD FACILITATE TO COMPLETE THE
RESEARCH WORK WITHIN THE STIPULATED TIME.
Functions of Research
Design

• IT PROVIDES A BLUEPRINT OF RESEARCH.

• IT LIMITS (DICTATES) THE BOUNDARIES OF THE
RESEARCH ACTIVITIES.
• IT ENABLES INVESTIGATION TO ANTICIPATE
POTENTIAL PROBLEMS
Components of Research
Design
TITLE OF THE INVESTIGATION
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
SCOPE OF THE INVESTIGATION

Cont…
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
VARIABLES
HYPOTHESIS
SELECTION OF SAMPLE
DATA COLLECTION
ANALYSIS OF DATA
Types of Research Design

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
NON- EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
Experimental Designs

THERE ARE TWO TYPES

•QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL
•EXPERIMENTAL
Non-Experimental Design

CASE STUDY DESIGNS/METHOD.

CONTENT ANALYSIS.
ETHNOGRAPHY.
FOCUS GROUPS.
NETWORK ANALYSIS AND SOCIOMETRY.
 Hypotheses
THE PURPOSE OF HYPOTHESIS TESTING IS TO DETERMINE WHETHER THERE IS
ENOUGH STATISTICAL EVIDENCE IN FAVOR OF A CERTAIN BELIEF ABOUT A
PARAMETER.
A HYPOTHESIS IS A PRELIMINARY OR TENTATIVE EXPLANATION OR POSTULATE BY
THE RESEARCHER OF WHAT THE RESEARCHER CONSIDERS THE OUTCOME OF AN
INVESTIGATION WILL BE. IT IS AN INFORMED/EDUCATED GUESS.
IT INDICATES THE EXPECTATIONS OF THE RESEARCHER REGARDING CERTAIN
VARIABLES. IT IS THE MOST SPECIFIC WAY IN WHICH AN ANSWER TO A PROBLEM
CAN BE STATED.
 Define Hypothesis

A TENTATIVE STATEMENT ABOUT A POPULATION

PARAMETER THAT MIGHT BE TRUE OR WRONG
 The Difference Between An Hypothesis And A
Problem

• BOTH A HYPOTHESIS AND A PROBLEM CONTRIBUTE TO THE BODY OF

KNOWLEDGE THAT SUPPORTS OR REFUTES AN EXISTING THEORY.
• A HYPOTHESIS DIFFERS FROM A PROBLEM.
• A PROBLEM IS FORMULATED IN THE FORM OF A QUESTION; IT SERVES AS THE
BASIS OR ORIGIN FROM WHICH A HYPOTHESIS IS DERIVED.
• A HYPOTHESIS IS A SUGGESTED SOLUTION TO A PROBLEM.
• A PROBLEM (QUESTION) CANNOT BE DIRECTLY TESTED, WHEREAS A
HYPOTHESIS CAN BE TESTED AND VERIFIED.
 When is an Hypothesis Formulated

AN HYPOTHESIS IS FORMULATED AFTER THE PROBLEM

HAS BEEN STATED AND THE LITERATURE STUDY HAS
BEEN CONCLUDED.
IT IS FORMULATED WHEN THE RESEARCHER IS
TOTALLY AWARE OF THE THEORETICAL AND EMPIRICAL
BACKGROUND TO THE PROBLEM.
 PURPOSE AND FUNCTION OF AN
HYPOTHESIS

• IT OFFERS EXPLANATIONS FOR THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN

THOSE VARIABLES THAT CAN BE EMPIRICALLY TESTED.
• IT FURNISHES PROOF THAT THE RESEARCHER HAS SUFFICIENT
BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE TO ENABLE HIM/HER TO MAKE
SUGGESTIONS IN ORDER TO EXTEND EXISTING KNOWLEDGE.
• IT GIVES DIRECTION TO AN INVESTIGATION.
• IT STRUCTURES THE NEXT PHASE IN THE INVESTIGATION AND
THEREFORE FURNISHES CONTINUITY TO THE EXAMINATION OF
THE PROBLEM.
CHARACTERISTICS OF AN
HYPOTHESIS

• IT SHOULD HAVE ELUCIDATING POWER.

• IT SHOULD STRIVE TO FURNISH AN ACCEPTABLE EXPLANATION
OF THE PHENOMENON.
• IT MUST BE VERIFIABLE.
• IT MUST BE FORMULATED IN SIMPLE, UNDERSTANDABLE TERMS.
• IT SHOULD CORRESPOND WITH EXISTING KNOWLEDGE.
 Types of Hypotheses
1. DESCRIPTIVE HYPOTHESES:
These are propositions that describe the characteristics ( such as size,
form or distribution) of a variable. The variable may be an object,
person, organization etc. ,
e.g., The rate of unemployment among arts graduates is higher
than that of commerce graduates. The educational system is
not oriented to human resource needs of a country.
2. RELATIONAL HYPOTHESES.
These are propositions which describe the relationship between two
variables.
e. g. , Families with higher incomes spend more on recreation
Upper–class people have fewer children than lower-class people.

Cont…
3. CAUSAL HYPOTHESES
It state that the existence of, or a change in, one variable Causes or leads
to an effect on another variable.
The first variable is called the independent variable, and the latter the
dependent variable.
When dealing with causal relationships between variables the researcher
must consider the direction in which such relationship flow
e.g: which is cause and which is effect
4. WORKING HYPOTHESES
While planning the study of a problem, hypotheses are formed.
Initially they may not be very specific. In such cases, they are referred
to as ‘ working hypotheses’ which are subject to modification as
the investigation proceeds.

Cont…
 . NULL HYPOTHESES
This hypotheses are formulated for testing statistical significance,
since, this form is a convenient approach to statistical analysis.
As the test would nullify the null hypotheses.
E.G., : THERE IS A RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN A
FAMILY’S INCOME AND EXPENDITURE ON
RECREATION, A NULL HYPOTHESIS MAY STATE: THERE IS
NO RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FAMILIES INCOME LEVEL
AND EXPENDITURE ON RECREATION.
6. STATISTICAL HYPOTHESES
These are statements about a statistical population. These are
derived from a sample. These are quantitative in nature in that
they are numerically measurable
eg: Group A is older than B’
Cont…
 HYPOTHESES

COMMON SENSE HYPOTHESES

It state the existence of empirical uniformities perceived through day to day observations.
e.g., “ Shop-assistants in small shops lack motivation”

8.COMPLEX HYPOTHESES
These aim at testing the existence of logically derived relationships between empirical
uniformities.
e.g., In the early stage human ecology described empirical uniformities in the
distribution of land values, industrial concentrations, types of business and
other phenomena.
9.ANALYTICAL HYPOTHESES:
It concerned with the relationship of analytic variables. These hypotheses
occur at the highest level of abstraction.
These specify relationship between changes in one property and changes in
another.
Eg., The study of human fertility might show empirical regularities by wealth,
education, region, and religion.
 Characteristics of a Good
Hypotheses

• Conceptual Clarity
• Specificity
• Testability
• Availability of Techniques
• Theoretical relevance
• Consistency
• Objectivity
• Simplicity
Sources of Hypotheses

Theory
Observation
Analogies
Intuition and personal experience
Findings of studies
State of Knowledge
Culture
Continuity of Research
 Sampling

Sampling is the process

of selecting a small number of elements
from a larger defined target group
of elements such that
the information gathered
from the small group will allow judgments
to be made about the larger groups
 Basics of Sampling Theory

Population

Element

Defined target
population

Sampling unit

Sampling frame
 Sampling Error

Sampling error is any type of bias

that is attributable to mistakes
in either drawing a sample or
determining the sample size
 Developing a Sampling
Plan

1. DEFINE THE POPULATION OF INTEREST

2. IDENTIFY A SAMPLING FRAME (IF POSSIBLE)
3. SELECT A SAMPLING METHOD
4. DETERMINE SAMPLE SIZE
5. EXECUTE THE SAMPLING PLAN
 Defining Population of
Interest

POPULATION OF INTEREST IS ENTIRELY DEPENDENT

ON MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS, RESEARCH PROBLEMS,
AND RESEARCH DESIGN.
SOME BASES FOR DEFINING POPULATION:
• Geographic Area
• Demographics
• Usage/Lifestyle
• Awareness
 Sampling Frame

A LIST OF POPULATION ELEMENTS (PEOPLE, COMPANIES, HOUSES, CITIES,

ETC.) FROM WHICH UNITS TO BE SAMPLED CAN BE SELECTED.

DIFFICULT TO GET AN ACCURATE LIST.

SAMPLE FRAME ERROR OCCURS WHEN CERTAIN ELEMENTS OF THE

POPULATION ARE ACCIDENTALLY OMITTED OR NOT INCLUDED ON THE
LIST.

SEE SURVEY SAMPLING INTERNATIONAL FOR SOME GOOD EXAMPLES

HTTP://WWW.SURVEYSAMPLING.COM/
 Sampling Methods

Probability Nonprobability
sampling sampling
 Types of Sampling Methods

Probability Nonprobability
• Simple random sampling
• Convenience
sampling
• Systematic random sampling
• Judgment sampling
• Stratified random sampling
• Quota sampling
• Cluster sampling • Snowball sampling
 Simple Random Sampling

Simple random sampling is a method of

probability sampling in which
every unit has an equal nonzero
chance of being selected
 Systematic Random Sampling

Systematic random sampling is a

method of
probability sampling
in which the defined
target population is ordered
and the sample is selected
according to position using a skip interval
Steps in Drawing a Systematic Random
Sample

1: OBTAIN A LIST OF UNITS THAT CONTAINS AN ACCEPTABLE FRAME OF THE TARGET

POPULATION

2: DETERMINE THE NUMBER OF UNITS IN THE LIST AND THE DESIRED SAMPLE SIZE

3: COMPUTE THE SKIP INTERVAL

4: DETERMINE A RANDOM START POINT

5: BEGINNING AT THE START POINT, SELECT THE UNITS BY CHOOSING EACH UNIT THAT
CORRESPONDS TO THE SKIP INTERVAL
 Stratified Random Sampling

Stratified random sampling is a

method of
probability sampling
in which the population is divided
into different subgroups and samples
are selected from each
Steps in Drawing a Stratified
Random Sample

1: DIVIDE THE TARGET POPULATION INTO

HOMOGENEOUS SUBGROUPS OR STRATA
2: DRAW RANDOM SAMPLES FROM EACH STRATUM
3: COMBINE THE SAMPLES FROM EACH STRATUM INTO
A SINGLE SAMPLE OF THE TARGET POPULATION
 Cluster Sampling
CLUSTER SAMPLING IS A SAMPLING TECHNIQUE USED WHEN "NATURAL"
GROUPINGS ARE EVIDENT IN A STATISTICAL POPULATION.
IT IS OFTEN USED IN MARKETING RESEARCH.
IT DIVIDE POPULATION INTO COMPARABLE GROUPS: SCHOOLS, CITIES
ETC..
CLUSTER SAMPLING IS TO REDUCE THE AVERAGE COST PER INTERVIEW
THE TECHNIQUE GIVES MORE ACCURATE RESULTS WHEN MOST OF THE
VARIATION IN THE POPULATION IS WITHIN THE GROUPS,
 Nonprobability Sampling
Methods

Convenience sampling relies

upon convenience and access
Judgment sampling relies upon belief
that participants fit characteristics

Quota sampling emphasizes representation

of specific characteristics
Snowball sampling relies upon respondent
referrals of others with like characteristics
 Non Probability Sampling
CONVENIENCE SAMPLES: SAMPLES DRAWN AT THE CONVENIENCE OF THE INTERVIEWER. PEOPLE TEND TO MAKE THE
SELECTION AT FAMILIAR LOCATIONS AND TO CHOOSE RESPONDENTS WHO ARE LIKE THEMSELVES.

JUDGMENT SAMPLES: SAMPLES THAT REQUIRE A JUDGMENT OR AN “EDUCATED GUESS” ON THE PART OF THE
INTERVIEWER AS TO WHO SHOULD REPRESENT THE POPULATION. ALSO, “JUDGES” (INFORMED INDIVIDUALS) MAY BE
ASKED TO SUGGEST WHO SHOULD BE IN THE SAMPLE.

QUOTA SAMPLES: SAMPLES THAT SET A SPECIFIC NUMBER OF CERTAIN TYPES OF INDIVIDUALS TO BE INTERVIEWED

SNOWBALL SAMPLING: IS A TECHNIQUE FOR DEVELOPING A RESEARCH SAMPLE WHERE EXISTING STUDY SUBJECTS
RECRUIT FUTURE SUBJECTS FROM AMONG THEIR ACQUAINTANCES.
Factors to Consider in Sample
Design

Research objectives Degree of accuracy

Resources Time frame

Knowledge of
target population Research scope

Statistical analysis needs

 Data Collection
70

DATA COLLECTION POSSIBILITIES ARE WIDE AND

VARIED WITH ANY ONE METHOD OF COLLECTION NOT
INHERENTLY BETTER THAN ANY OTHER
EACH HAS PROS AND CONS THAT MUST BE WEIGHED
UP IN VIEW OF A RICH AND COMPLEX CONTEXT
 The Data Collection
Process
71
ALL METHODS OF COLLECTION REQUIRE RIGOROUS AND SYSTEMATIC
DESIGN AND EXECUTION THAT INCLUDES

• Thorough planning
• Well-considered development
• Effective piloting
• Weighed modification
• Deliberate implementation and execution
• Appropriate management and analysis
 Surveys
72

Surveying involves gathering information from individuals

using a questionnaire.
Surveys can
• Reach a large number of respondents
• Generate standardized, quantifiable, empirical data - as well as
some qualitative data
• And offer confidentiality / anonymity

Designing survey instruments capable of generating

credible data, however, can be difficult
 Survey Types
73

SURVEYS CAN BE

Descriptive or explanatory
Involve entire populations or samples of
populations
Capture a moment or map trends
Can be administered in a number of ways
Survey Construction
74

SURVEY CONSTRUCTION INVOLVES

Formulating questions and response categories

Writing up background information and instruction
Working through organization and length
Determining layout and design
 Interviewing
75

INTERVIEWING INVOLVES ASKING RESPONDENTS A SERIES

OF OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS
INTERVIEWS CAN GENERATE BOTH STANDARDIZED
QUANTIFIABLE DATA AND MORE IN-DEPTH QUALITATIVE
DATA
HOWEVER, THE COMPLEXITIES OF PEOPLE AND THE
COMPLEXITIES OF COMMUNICATION CAN CREATE MANY
OPPORTUNITIES FOR MISCOMMUNICATION AND
MISINTERPRETATION
 Interview Types
76

INTERVIEWS CAN RANGE FROM

formal to informal
structured to unstructured
can be one on one or involve groups
Conducting Interviews
77

WHEN CONDUCTING YOUR INTERVIEWS YOU WILL

NEED TO
question, prompt, and probe in ways that help you
gather rich data
actively listen and make sense of what is being said
manage the overall process
 Observation
78

OBSERVATION RELIES ON THE RESEARCHERS’ ABILITY TO GATHER

DATA THOUGH THEIR SENSES - AND ALLOWS RESEARCHERS TO
DOCUMENT ACTUAL BEHAVIOUR RATHER THAN RESPONSES RELATED
TO BEHAVIOUR

HOWEVER, THE OBSERVED CAN ACT DIFFERENTLY WHEN

SURVEILLED, AND OBSERVATIONS CAN BE TAINTED BY A
RESEARCHER’S WORLDVIEW
 Observation Types
79

OBSERVATION CAN RANGE FROM

non-participant to participant
candid to covert
from structured to unstructured
The Observation Process
80

THE OBSERVATION PROCESS IS SOMETIMES

TREATED CASUALLY, BUT IS A METHOD THAT NEEDS
TO BE TREATED AS RIGOROUSLY AS ANY OTHER
THE PROCESS SHOULD INCLUDE PLANNING,
OBSERVING, RECORDING, REFLECTING, AND
AUTHENTICATING
 Experimentation
81

EXPERIMENTATION EXPLORES CAUSE AND EFFECT

RELATIONSHIPS BY MANIPULATING INDEPENDENT
VARIABLES IN ORDER TO SEE IF THERE IS A
CORRESPONDING EFFECT ON A DEPENDENT VARIABLE
 Experimentation
82

PURE EXPERIMENTATION REQUIRES BOTH A

CONTROLLED ENVIRONMENT AND THE USE OF A
RANDOMLY ASSIGNED CONTROL GROUP
THIS CAN BE DIFFICULT TO ACHIEVE IN HUMAN
CENTRED EXPERIMENTS CONDUCTED IN THE REAL-
WORLD
 Real-World Experiments
83

THERE ARE MANY EXPERIMENTS THAT CAN ONLY BE CARRIED OUT

IN THE MESSY UNCONTROLLED ENVIRONMENTS OF THE REAL
WORLD, SO THE SEARCH FOR CAUSE AND EFFECT WILL REQUIRE
TRADEOFFS BETWEEN REAL-WORLD CONTEXTS AND A CONTROLLED
ENVIRONMENT
Questionnaire surveys (includes mail)

Advantages:

•Quick and easy to administer.

•Can get a large amount of information in a short time.
•Allows for employee participation.
•Does not require trained interviewer.
•Relatively less expensive.
84
Disadvantages:

•Quality of information related to the quality of the questionnaire.

•Must have high school reading and writing ability to complete one.
•Often needs follow-up interview or observation.
•May be difficult to construct.
•May have low response rate.
•Responses may be incomplete.
•Responses may be difficult to interpret (open-ended)

Online surveys:
• The use of the Internet has made a huge difference to the way surveys are
conducted and has
become a science unto itself.
• quick to implement. Lower cost, higher
 85
Face-to-face interviews :
Most informative method of qualitative data collection because the
human interaction of face-to-face interviews provides the opportunity to probe
for insights and build on responses for greater value.
Door-to-door: People are contacted at home and in person (abandoned in
Developed due to high cost of transport, staff)
Street / shopping mall intercepts: Popular in Developed Economies (some Malls
consider a nuisance).
Telephone interviews are less time consuming and less expensive and the
researcher has ready access to anyone on the planet who has a telephone.
Disadvantages are that the response rate is not as high as the face-to- face
interview but considerably higher than the mailed questionnaire. The sample
may be biased to the extent that people without phones are part of the
population about whom the researcher wants to draw inferences.
Web based questionnaires :
A new and inevitably growing methodology is the use of Internet based
research. This would mean receiving an e-mail on which you would click on an address
that would take you to a secure web-site to fill in a questionnaire. This type of research is
often quicker and less detailed. Some disadvantages of this method include the exclusion
of people who do not have a computer or are unable to access a computer. Also the
validity of such surveys are in question as people might be in a hurry to complete it and
so might not give accurate responses.

Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI): is a form of personal interviewing,

but instead of completing a questionnaire, the interviewer brings along a laptop or hand-
held computer to enter the information directly into the database. This method saves time
involved in processing the data, as well as saving the interviewer from carrying around
hundreds of questionnaires. However, this type of data collection method can be
expensive to set up and requires that interviewers have computer and typing skills.

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