Boundary Layer

1
 Introduction
⚫ External flows past objects encompass an extremely wide
variety of fluid mechanics phenomena. Clearly the
character of the flow field is a function of the shape of the
body.
⚫ For a given shaped object, the characteristics of the flow
depend very strongly on various parameters such as
size, orientation, speed, and fluid properties.
⚫ According to dimensional analysis arguments, the
character of the flow should depend on the various
dimensionless parameters involved.
⚫ For typical external flows the most important of these
parameters are the Reynolds number, Re =UL/ν , where L– is
characteristic dimension of the body.

2
 Introduction
⚫ For many high-Reynolds-number flows the flow field may be
divided into two regions
i. A viscous boundary layer adjacent to the surface
ii. The essentially inviscid flow outside the boundary layer
⚫ We know that fluids adhere the solid walls and they take
the solid wall velocity. When the wall does not move also
the velocity of fluid on the wall is zero.
⚫ In the region near the wall the velocity of fluid particles
increases from a value of zero at the wall to the value
that corresponds to the external ”frictionless” flow
outside the boundary layer

3
 Introduction

⚫ Figure 1: Visualization of the flow around the car. It is visible the thin
layer along the body is caused by viscosity of the fluid. The flow
outside the narrow region near the solid boundary can be considered
as ideal (inviscid).

4
 Introduction
⚫ The concept of boundary layer was first introduced by
a German engineer, Prandtl in 1904.
⚫ According to Prandtl theory, when a real fluid flows past a
stationary solid boundary at large values of the Reynolds
number, the flow will be divided into two regions.
i. A thin layer adjoining the solid boundary, called the
boundary layer, where the viscous effects and rotation
cannot be neglected.
ii. An outer region away from the surface of the object
where the viscous effects are very small and can be
neglected. (The flow behavior is similar to the
upstream flow. In this case a potential flow can be
assumed.)

5
 Introduction
⚫ Since the fluid at the boundaries has zero velocity, there is a
steep velocity gradient from the boundary into the flow. This
velocity gradient in a real fluid sets up shear forces near the
boundary that reduce the flow speed to that of the boundary.
⚫ That fluid layer which has had its velocity affected by the
boundary shear is called the boundary layer.
⚫ For smooth upstream boundaries the boundary layer starts out as
a laminar boundary layer in which the fluid particles move in
smooth layers.
⚫ As the laminar boundary layer increases in thickness, it becomes
unstable and finally transforms into a turbulent boundary layer
in which the fluid particles move in haphazard paths.
⚫ When the boundary layer has become turbulent, there is still a
very thin layer next to the boundary layer that has laminar
motion. It is called the laminar sublayer.
6
 Introduction

⚫ Fig. 6.2 The development of the boundary layer for flow over a
flat plate, and the different flow regimes. The vertical scale has
been greatly exaggerated and horizontal scale has been shortened.

7
 Introduction
⚫ The turbulent boundary layer can be considered to consist
of four regions, characterized by the distance from the
wall.
⚫ The very thin layer next to the wall where viscous effects
are dominant is the viscous sublayer. The velocity profile
in this layer is very nearly linear, and the flow is nearly
parallel.
⚫ Next to the viscous sublayer is the buffer layer, in which
turbulent effects are becoming significant, but the flow
is still dominated by viscous effects.
⚫ Above the buffer layer is the overlap layer, in which the
turbulent effects are much more significant, but still not
dominant.
⚫ Above that is the turbulent (or outer) layer in
8
which turbulent effects dominate over viscous
 Boundary layer thickness, δ
⚫ The boundary layer thickness is defined as the vertical distance
from a flat plate to a point where the flow velocity reaches 99 per
cent of the velocity of the free stream.
⚫ Another definition of boundary layer are the
 Boundary layer displacement thickness, δ*
 Boundary layer momentum thickness, θ
Boundary layer displacement thickness, δ*
⚫ Consider two types of fluid flow past a stationary horizontal plate
with velocity U as shown in Fig. 6.3. Since there is no viscosity for
the case of ideal fluid (Fig. 6.3a), a uniform velocity profile is
developed above the solid wall.
⚫ However, the velocity gradient is developed in the boundary layer
region for the case of real fluid with the presence of viscosity and
no-slip at the wall (Fig. 6.3b).
9
 Boundary layer displacement thickness, δ*

Figure 6.3 Flow over a horizontal solid surface for the case of (a)
Ideal fluid (b) Real fluid
⚫ The velocity deficits through the element strip of cross
section b-b is U - u . Then the reduction of mass flow rate
is obtained as where b is the plate width.
⚫ The total mass flowrate reduction due to the presence of
viscosity compared to the case of ideal fluid

(6.1)
1
0
 Boundary layer displacement thickness, δ*
⚫ However, if we displace the plate upward by a distance at
section a-a to give mass reduction of , then the
deficit of flow rates for the both cases will be identical if

(6.2)

⚫ Here, is known as the boundary layer

displacement thickness.

1
1
 Boundary layer displacement thickness, δ*

⚫ Figure 6.4: Definition of boundary layer thickness:(a)

standard boundary layer(u = 99%U),(b) boundary
layer displacement thickness .

12
 Boundary layer displacement thickness, δ*
⚫ The displacement thickness represents the vertical distance
that the solid boundary must be displaced upward so that
the ideal fluid has the same mass flow rate as the real fluid.

Figure 6.5 boundary layer displacement thickness

13
Boundary layer momentum thickness, θ
⚫ Another definition of boundary layer thickness, the boundary
layer momentum thickness θ, is often used to predict the
drag force (the resistance experienced by an object moving
through a fluid) on the object surface.
⚫ By referring to Fig. 6.3, again the velocity deficit through
the element strip of cross section b-b contributes to deficit
in momentum flux (rate of transfer of momentum per unit
area) as
(6.3)
⚫ Thus, the total momentum reductions

⚫ However, if we displace the plate upward by a distance θ at

section a-a to give momentum reduction of , then
the momentum deficit for the both cases will be identical if
 Boundary layer momentum thickness, θ

(6.4)

⚫ Here, θ is known as the boundary layer

momentum thickness.
⚫ The momentum thickness represents the vertical
distance that the solid boundary must be displaced
upward so that the ideal fluid has the same mass
momentum as the real fluid
5
 Reynolds Number and Geometry Effects
⚫ The technique of boundary layer (BL) analysis can be used to
compute viscous effects near solid walls and to “patch” these onto
the outer inviscid motion.
⚫ This patching is more successful as the body Reynolds number
becomes larger, as shown in Fig. 6.6.
⚫ In Fig. 6.6 a uniform stream U moves parallel to a sharp flat plate
of length L. If the Reynolds number UL/ ν is low (Fig. 6.6a), the
viscous region is very broad and extends far ahead and to the sides
of the plate. (The plate retards the oncoming stream greatly, and
small changes in flow parameters cause large changes in the
pressure distribution along the plate.)
⚫ There is no existing simple theory for external flow analysis at
Reynolds numbers from 1 to about 1000. Such thick-shear-layer
flows are typically studied by experiment or by numerical modeling
of the flow field on a computer
16
 Reynolds Number and Geometry Effects

⚫ Fig. 6.6.
Comparison of flow
past a sharp flat
plate at low and
high Reynolds
numbers: (a)
laminar, low-Re
flow; (b) high-Re
flow.

17
 Reynolds Number and Geometry Effects
⚫ A high-Reynolds-number flow (Fig. 6.6b) is much more
amenable to boundary layer patching, as first pointed out by
Prandtl in 1904.
⚫ The viscous layers, either laminar or turbulent, are very thin,
thinner even than the drawing shows.
⚫ We define the boundary layer thickness δ as the locus of
points where the velocity u parallel to the plate reaches 99
percent of the external velocity U.
⚫ The accepted formulas for flat-plate flow, and their approximate
ranges, are

(6.5)

1
8
Reynolds Number and Geometry Effects
⚫ where Rex = Ux/ν is called the local Reynolds number of the flow
along the plate surface. The turbulent flow formula applies for Rex
greater than approximately 106 .
⚫ Some computed values are shown below

⚫ The blanks indicate that the formula is not applicable. In all

cases these boundary layers are so thin that their
displacement effect on the outer inviscid layer is negligible.
⚫ (Thus the pressure distribution along the plate can be
computed from inviscid theory as if the boundary layer
were not even there.)
 Laminar and Turbulent Pipe Flow

20
 Introduction
⚫ Fluid flow in circular and noncircular pipes is commonly
encountered in practice.
⚫ The hot and cold water that we use in our homes is pumped
through pipes. Water in a city is distributed by extensive
piping networks. Oil and natural gas are transported
hundreds of miles by large pipelines. Blood is carried
throughout our bodies by arteries and veins. The cooling
water in an engine is transported by hoses to the pipes in
the radiator where it is cooled as it flows.
⚫ The fluid in such applications is usually forced to flow by a
fan or pump through a flow section.
⚫ We pay particular attention to friction, which is directly
related to the pressure drop and head loss during flow
through pipes and ducts.
32
 Introduction
⚫ The pressure drop is then used to determine the pumping
power requirement.
⚫ A typical piping system involves pipes of different diameters
connected to each other by various fittings or elbows
to route the fluid, valves to control the flow rate, and pumps
to pressurize the fluid.
⚫ The terms pipe, duct, and conduit are usually used
interchangeably for flow sections.
⚫ In general, flow sections of circular cross section are
referred to as pipes (especially when the fluid is a liquid),
and flow sections of noncircular cross section as ducts
(especially when the fluid is a gas) Small diameter pipes are
usually referred to as tubes.
33
 Introduction
⚫ Most fluids, especially liquids, are
transported in circular pipes. This is
because pipes with a circular cross
section can withstand large pressure
differences between the inside and the
outside without undergoing significant
distortion.
⚫ Noncircular pipes are usually used in
applications such as the heating and
cooling systems of buildings where the
pressure difference is relatively small,
the manufacturing and installation
costs are lower, and the available space
is limited for ductwork.
34
 Introduction
⚫ The fluid velocity in a pipe
changes from zero at the surface
because of the no-slip condition
to a maximum at the pipe
center.
⚫ In fluid flow, it is convenient to
work with an average velocity
Vavg, which remains constant in
incompressible flow when the
cross-sectional area of the pipe is
constant.
⚫ The change in average velocity
due to change in density and
temperature and due to friction
3 is usually small and is thus
5
disregarded in calculations.
Introduction
 LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOWS
⚫ Fluid flow in a pipe is streamlined at low
velocities but turns chaotic as the velocity is
increased above a critical value.
⚫ A laminar flow is characterized by smooth
streamlines and highly ordered motion, and
turbulent flow is characterized by velocity
fluctuations and highly disordered motion.
⚫ The transition from laminar to turbulent flow
does not occur suddenly; rather, it occurs over
some region in which the flow fluctuates between
laminar and turbulent flows before it becomes
fully turbulent.
⚫ Most flows encountered in practice are turbulent.
Laminar flow is encountered when highly viscous
fluids such as oils flow in small pipes or narrow
3 passages.
7
 Reynolds Number
⚫ The transition from laminar to turbulent flow depends on the
geometry, surface roughness, flow velocity, surface temperature,
and type of fluid, among other things.
⚫ After exhaustive experiments in the 1880s, Osborne Reynolds
discovered that the flow regime depends mainly on the ratio
of inertial forces to viscous forces in the fluid. This ratio is
called the Reynolds number and is expressed for internal
flow in a circular pipe as

38
 Reynolds Number
⚫ where Vavg = average flow velocity (m/s), D = characteristic
length of the geometry (diameter in this case, in m), and ν =
μ/ρ = kinematic viscosity of the fluid (m2/s).
⚫ Note that the Reynolds number is a dimensionless quantity.
⚫ At large Reynolds numbers, the inertial forces, which are
proportional to the fluid density and the square of the fluid
velocity, are large relative to the viscous forces, and thus
the viscous forces cannot prevent the random and rapid
fluctuations of the fluid.
⚫ At small or moderate Reynolds numbers, however, the
viscous forces are large enough to suppress these
fluctuations and to keep the fluid “in line.”
⚫ Thus the flow is turbulent in the first case and laminar in

39
the second.
 Reynolds Number
⚫ The Reynolds number at which the flow becomes
turbulent is called the critical Reynolds number, Recr .
⚫ The value of the critical Reynolds number is different for
different geometries and flow conditions. For internal flow
in a circular pipe, the generally accepted value of the
critical Reynolds number is Recr = 2300.
⚫ For flow through non-circular pipes, the Reynolds number
is based on the hydraulic diameter Dh defined as

⚫ where Ac is the cross-sectional area of the pipe and p is

its wetted perimeter. The hydraulic diameter is defined
such that it reduces to ordinary diameter D for circular
4 pipes,
0
 Reynolds Number

⚫ For circular pipes

⚫ For flow in circular pipes

4
1
 The Entrance Region
⚫ Consider a fluid entering a circular pipe at a uniform velocity.
Because of the no-slip condition, the fluid particles in the
layer in contact with the surface of the pipe come to a
complete stop.
⚫ This layer also causes the fluid particles in the adjacent layers
to slow down gradually as a result of friction.
⚫ The region of the flow in which the effects of the viscous
shearing forces caused by fluid viscosity are felt is called the
velocity boundary layer or just the boundary layer.
⚫ The hypothetical boundary surface divides the flow in a
pipe into two regions: the boundary layer region, in which
the viscous effects and the velocity changes are significant,
and the irrotational (core) flow region, in which the
frictional effects are negligible and the velocity remains
4 essentially constant in the radial direction.
2
 The Entrance Region
⚫ The thickness of this boundary layer increases in the flow
direction until the boundary layer reaches the pipe center and thus
fills the entire pipe.
⚫ The region from the pipe inlet to the point at which the boundary
layer merges at the centerline is called the hydrodynamic
entrance region, and the length of this region is called the
hydrodynamic entry length Lh.

43
The Entrance Region
⚫ Flow in the entrance region is called hydrodynamically
developing flow since this is the region where the velocity
profile develops.
⚫ The region beyond the entrance region in which the
velocity profile is fully developed and remains
unchanged is called the hydrodynamically fully
developed region.
 The Entrance Region
⚫ The velocity profile in the fully developed region is
parabolic in laminar flow and somewhat flatter (or fuller)
in turbulent flow due to eddy motion and more vigorous
mixing in the radial direction.
Entry Lengths
⚫ The hydrodynamic entry length is usually taken to be the
distance from the pipe entrance to where the wall shear
stress (and thus the friction factor) reaches within about
2 percent of the fully developed value.
⚫ In laminar flow, the hydrodynamic entry length is given
approximately as

45
 The Entrance Region
⚫ In turbulent flow, the intense mixing during random
fluctuations usually overshadows the effects of molecular
diffusion.
⚫ The hydrodynamic entry length for turbulent flow can be
approximated as [see Bhatti and Shah (1987) and Zhi-qing
(1982)]

⚫ The entry length is much shorter in turbulent flow, as

expected, and its dependence on the Reynolds number
is weaker.

47
 The Entrance Region
⚫ In many pipe flows of practical engineering interest, the
entrance effects become insignificant beyond a pipe
length of 10 diameters, and the hydrodynamic entry
length is approximated as

⚫ The pipes used in practice are usually several times the

length of the entrance region, and thus the flow through the
pipes is often assumed to be fully developed for the entire
length of the pipe. This simplistic approach gives
reasonable results for long pipes but sometimes poor results
for short ones since it under predicts the wall shear stress
and thus the friction factor.
 Laminar Flow in Pipes

⚫ Flow in pipes is laminar for Re ≤ 2300,

⚫ And that the flow is fully developed if the pipe is

sufficiently long (relative to the entry length) so that the
entrance effects are negligible.

49
 Pressure Drop and Head Loss
⚫ A quantity of interest in the analysis of pipe flow is the
pressure drop P since it is directly related to the
power requirements of the fan or pump to maintain
flow.
⚫ We note that dP/dx = constant, and integrating from x = x1
where the pressure is P1 to x = x1 + L where the pressure is
P2 gives

56
 Pressure Drop and Head Loss
⚫ Pressure drop due to viscous effects represents an
irreversible pressure loss, and it is called pressure loss PL
to emphasize that it is a loss.
⚫ Pressure drop is proportional to the viscosity μ of the fluid,
and P would be zero if there were no friction. Therefore,
the drop of pressure from P1 to P2 in this case is due
entirely to viscous effects.
⚫ In practice, it is found convenient to express the pressure
loss for all types of fully developed internal flows
(laminar or turbulent flows, circular or noncircular pipes,
smooth or rough surfaces, horizontal or inclined pipes) as

57
 Pressure Drop and Head Loss
⚫ where ρV2avg/2 is the dynamic pressure and f is the Darcy
friction factor also called the Darcy–Weisbach friction
factor

⚫ For fully developed laminar flow in a circular pipe

solving for f gives

⚫ This equation shows that in laminar flow, the friction factor

is a function of the Reynolds number only and is
independent of the roughness of the pipe surface.
58
 Pressure Drop and Head Loss
⚫ In the analysis of piping systems, pressure losses are
commonly expressed in terms of the equivalent fluid
column height, called the head loss hL.
⚫ (Noting from fluid statics that P = ρgh and thus a pressure
difference of P corresponds to a fluid height of h = P/ρg, the
pipe head loss is obtained by dividing PL by ρg to give : )

⚫ The head loss hL represents the additional height that the

fluid needs to be raised by a pump in order to overcome
the frictional losses in the pipe. The head loss is caused by
viscosity, and it is directly related to the wall shear stress.

59
 Turbulent Flow in Pipes
⚫ In laminar flow, fluid particles flow in an orderly manner
along pathlines, and momentum and energy are transferred
across streamlines by molecular diffusion.
⚫ In turbulent flow, the swirling eddies transport mass,
momentum, and energy to other regions of flow much
more rapidly than molecular diffusion, greatly enhancing
mass, momentum, and heat transfer.
⚫ As a result, turbulent flow is associated with much
higher values of friction, heat transfer, and mass transfer
coefficients.
⚫ The eddy motion in turbulent flow causes significant
fluctuations in the values of velocity, temperature, pressure,
and even density (in compressible flow).
74
 Turbulent Flow in Pipes
Turbulent Velocity Profile
⚫ The velocity profile is parabolic
in laminar flow but is much
fuller in turbulent flow, with a
sharp drop near the pipe wall.
⚫ Turbulent flow along a wall can
be considered to consist of four
regions, characterized by the
distance from the wall.
⚫ The very thin layer next to the
wall where viscous effects are
dominant is the viscous (or
laminar or linear or wall)
sublayer.
79
 Turbulent Flow in Pipes
⚫ The velocity profile in the viscous sub-layer is very nearly
linear, and the flow is streamlined.
⚫ Next to the viscous sublayer is the buffer layer, in which
turbulent effects are becoming significant, but the flow is
still dominated by viscous effects.
⚫ Above the buffer layer is the overlap (or transition) layer,
also called the inertial sublayer, in which the turbulent effects
are much more significant, but still not dominant.
⚫ Above that is the outer (or turbulent) layer in the
remaining part of the flow in which turbulent effects
dominate over molecular diffusion (viscous) effects.
⚫ Flow characteristics are quite different in different regions, and
thus it is difficult to come up with an analytic relation for
the velocity profile for the entire flow as we did for laminar
8
0
flow.
 The Moody Chart
⚫ The friction factor in fully developed turbulent pipe flow
depends on the Reynolds number and the relative
roughness ε/D, which is the ratio of the mean of face
irregularities (roughness) to the diameter of the pipe or the
characteristic length of the surface.
⚫ Colebrook equation

⚫ The Moody chart presents the Darcy friction factor for

pipe flow as a function of the Reynolds number and
ε/D over a wide range.
⚫ It is probably one of the most widely accepted and used
charts in engineering. Although it is developed for circular
pipes, it can also be used for noncircular pipes by
8 replacing the diameter by the hydraulic diameter.
3
84
 The Moody Chart
⚫ The Moody chart for friction factor for fully
developed flow in circular pipes for use in the head
loss relation

⚫ Friction factors in the turbulent flow are evaluated from

the Colebrook equation

85
The Moody Chart
 Turbulent Flow in Pipes
⚫ The Colebrook equation is implicit in f, and thus the
determination of the friction factor requires some
iteration unless an equation solver is used.
⚫ An approximate explicit relation for f was given by S.
E. Haaland in 1983 as

⚫ The results obtained from this relation are within 2

percent of those obtained from the Colebrook equation.

87