Lectuer 6

Methods of Proof
Proof
A proof is a logically structured argument which
demonstrates that a certain proposition is true. When
the proof is complete, the resulting proposition becomes
a theorem, or if it is rather simple, a lemma.
Direct Proofs
Theorem
Theorem: The sum of any two even integers is even integer.

Proof: m,n  Z, if m,n are even then m+n is even.
Three basic steps in a direct proof:

Deconstruct Axioms
Mathematical Insights
Reconstruct Conclusion
Cont…
1) Deconstruct Axioms
Take the hypothesis and turn it into a usable form.
Usually this amounts to just applying the definition.
e.g., Let m, n be two even integers, then m= 2r, n=2s.
2) Mathematical Insights
Use your human intellect and get at “real reason”
behind theorem. e.g., looking at what we’re trying to
prove, we see that we’d really like to prove m+n is even.
Cont….
So let’s take sum of m and n, m+n=2r+2s.

From here, we’ll have to use some algebra to get the
formula into a form usable by the final step.
3) Reconstruct Conclusion
This is the reverse of step 1. At the end of step 2 we
should have a simple form that could be derived by
applying the definition of the conclusion.
e.g., m+n=2(r+s)
Theorem
Disproving by Counterexample
Disproving by Counterexample
Theorem: For all integers a and b, if a | b and

b | a then a = b.
Counterexample: Let a = 2 and b = −2. Then
a | b since 2 | (−2) and b | a since (−2) | 2, but a
= b since 2 = −2.
Therefore, the statement is false.
Proof by Contradiction
Theorem
Theorem
Proof by contradiction
Theorem: The square of an even number is even
Proof: Suppose k is an even number but k 2 is not even.
 So k 2 is odd.  n k 2 = 2n + 1
 n k 2 - 1 = 2n n (k - 1)(k + 1) = 2n
 2 | (k - 1)(k + 1)
 2 | (k - 1) or 2 | (k + 1) since 2 is prime
 a k - 1 = 2a or  b k+1 = 2b
 a k = 2a + 1 or  b k = 2b – 1
In both cases k is odd
So k is not even, which is a contradiction
Today’s Lectures Summary
• Floor and Ceiling
• Properties of Floor and Ceiling
Functions
• Methods of Proof
• Direct Proofs
Indirect Proof
In addition to direct proofs, there are two other standard
methods for proving k P(k)  Q(k)
1. Indirect Proof : For any k assume: Q(k) and

derive: P(k), Uses the contra positive logical
equivalence: P Q  Q  P
2. Proof by Contradiction: For any k assume:
P(k)  Q(k) and derive: P(k)  Q(k)
Uses the logical equivalence:
P Q  P  Q  P  Q  P  Q
 (P  Q )  (P  Q )  (P  Q )  (P  Q )
 (P  Q )  (P  Q )
Intuitively: Assume claim is false (so P must be true and
Q false). Show that assumption was absurd (so P
false or Q true) so claim true!
Example
Theorem : There is no greatest integer.
Proof: Suppose not. That is, suppose there is a

greatest integer N. [We must deduce a contradiction.]
Then N ≥ n for every integer n. Let M = N + 1. Now M is
an integer since it is a sum of integers. Also M > N since
M = N + 1. Thus M is an integer that is greater than N.
So N is the greatest integer and N is not the greatest
integer, which is a contradiction.
Proof by contradiction
PROVE: The square of an even number is even
Proof: Suppose k is an even number but k 2 is not even.
 So k 2 is odd.  n k 2 = 2n + 1
 n k 2 - 1 = 2n n (k - 1)(k + 1) = 2n
 2 | (k - 1)(k + 1)
 2 | (k - 1) or 2 | (k + 1) since 2 is prime
 a k - 1 = 2a or  b k+1 = 2b
 a k = 2a + 1 or  b k = 2b – 1
In both cases k is odd
So k is not even, which is a contradiction
Today's Lecture
• Definition of Proof
• Methods of Proof
• Direct Proof
• Disproving by Counterexample.
• Proof by Contradiction
Easier Characterization
Recall the set of rational numbers Q = the set of numbers

with decimal expansion which is periodic past some point
(I.e. repeatinginginginginging…)
Easier characterization
Q = { p/q | p∙q are integers with q  0 }
Theorem: that the sum of any irrational number with a

rational number is irrational:
Disproving claims is often much easier than proving them.
Claims are usually of the form k P(k).
Cont….
Thus to disprove, enough to find one k –called a
counterexample– which makes P(k) false.
Proof: The product of irrational numbers is irrational.
1
1. Let x  2 and y  . Both are irrational.
2
1
2. Their product xy  2  1 is rational.
2
Method of Proof by Contra Positive
1. Express the statement to be proved in the form
∀x in D, if P(x) then Q(x).
2. Rewrite this statement in the contra positive form
∀x in D, if Q(x) is false then P(x) is false.
3. Prove the contra positive by a direct proof.
a. Suppose x is a (particular but arbitrarily chosen)
element of D such that Q(x) is false.
b. Show that P(x) is false.
Example
Proposition: For all integers n, if n2 is even then n is
even.
Contra positive: For all integers n, if n is not even then n2
is not even.
Proof: Suppose n is any odd integer. [We must show that
n2 is odd.] By definition of odd, n = 2k + 1 for some
integer k. By substitution and algebra,
n2 = (2k+1)22 = 4 k2 + 4k + 1 = 2(2 k2 + 2k) + 1.
But 2k2 + 2k is an integer because products and sums of
integers are integers. So n2 = 2·(an integer) + 1, and
thus, by definition of odd, n2 is odd.
Relation ship between Contra positive and
Contradiction Proofs
In a proof by contraposition, the statement
∀x in D, if P(x) then Q(x)
is proved by giving a direct proof of the equivalent
statement
∀x in D, if ∼Q(x) then ∼P(x).
To do this, you suppose you are given an arbitrary element
x of D such that ∼Q(x). You then show that ∼P(x). This is
illustrated in Figure
Cont….
To rewrite the proof as a proof by contradiction, you
suppose there is an x in D such that P(x) and ∼Q(x). You
then follow the steps of the proof by contraposition to
deduce the statement ∼P(x). But ∼P(x) is a contradiction
to the supposition that P(x) and ∼Q(x). (Because to
contradict a conjunction of two statements, it is only
necessary to
contradict one of them.) This process is illustrated in Figure
Two Classical Theorems
Theorem 1: Irrationality of 2 .
Proof:
Suppose not, suppose 2 is a rational number. Then there are integers m and n with no
m m2
common factors such that 2  , Squaring both side of the equation gives 2= 2
n n
or equivalently, m 2 2n 2  m 2 is even. it fallows that m 2k , for some integer k.
so m 2 (2k ) 2 4k 2 2n 2 , dividing both sides of the right most equation by 2 gives
n 2 2k 2 . Consequently, n 2 is even, and so n is even. Hence both m and n have a common
factor of 2. But this contradicts the supposition that m and n have no common
factors.
Cont…
Theorem 2: Prove by contra dictions 1+3 2 is irrational.
Lecture Summary
• Direct Proof
• Indirect Proof
• Proof by Contradiction
• Proof by contra positive
• Relation between them contra positive and
Contradiction
• Classical Theorems

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Methods of Proof

Theorem: The sum of any two even integers is even integer.

Three basic steps in a direct proof:

So let’s take sum of m and n, m+n=2r+2s.

Theorem: For all integers a and b, if a | b and

1. Indirect Proof : For any k assume: Q(k) and

Proof: Suppose not. That is, suppose there is a

Recall the set of rational numbers Q = the set of numbers

Theorem: that the sum of any irrational number with a

• Proof by contra positive

• Relation between them contra positive and

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