CHAPTER ONE

Introduction to Child
Development
JOSE LUIS “Louie” E. BOLO SALVACION M. MAGISTRADO, PhD
Discussant Professor, PS 220
 WH O’ s
th a t K ID ?
Niño Mulach
Carlos Yulo
Catriona
Sarah
Vilma Santos
Hidilyn Diaz
Darren
Lea Salonga
Coco Martin
 Sen. Risa
Hontiveros
Chapter Objectives:
a. After this chapter, you should
be able to:
b. Describe the principles that
underlie development.
c. Differentiate periods of human
development.
d. Evaluate issues in development.
e. Define “theory.”
PRINCIPLES
OF
DEVELOPME
NT
 Development is lifelong and
change is apparent across the
lifespan.
Development is
multidirectional.
 Development is
multidimensional.
The domains influence
each other.
 Development is
characterized by plasticity.
Development is multi
contextual.
DOMAINS OF
CHILD
DEVELOPME
NT
 Physical
Growth of body and brain,
sensory capacities

Socio-Emotional Cognitive
Emotions, Learning, attention,
personality, social memory, language,
relationships reasoning
 PERIODS
OF CHILD
DEVELOPME
NT
 Prenatal Period
The prenatal period, spanning
from conception to birth, is a
remarkable time of rapid growth and
development. During this critical
phase, a single cell transforms into a
complex human being.

Stages of Prenatal Development:

• Germinal Stage (Weeks 1-2)
• Embryonic Stage (Weeks 3-8)
• Fetal Stage (Weeks 9-40)
 Prenatal
Period
Factors Influencing Prenatal Development

1. Genetics – hereditary factors play a significant

role in determining physical characteristics and
potential health conditions.
2. Nutrition – a mother's diet provides essential
nutrients for the developing fetus.
3. Maternal Health – the mother's overall health
 Prenatal
Period
4. Environmental Factors – exposure to
toxins, drugs, or radiation can have
negative consequences.
5. Prenatal Care – regular prenatal
check-ups can help monitor the fetus's
growth and identify potential issues.
 Infancy and
Toddlerhood Period
The period from birth to
two years, encompassing
infancy and toddlerhood, is
characterized by rapid
physical, cognitive, and
social-emotional growth.
During this time, babies
and toddlers undergo
significant changes that lay
 Infancy and
1. PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT Toddlerhood Period
• Rapid Growth
Infants and toddlers experience rapid growth,
gaining weight and height at a remarkable pace.
• Motor Skills
Gross motor skills, such as crawling, walking,
and running, develop rapidly. Fine motor skills,
like grasping and manipulating objects, also
improve.
• Sensory Development
Babies and toddlers explore their world
 Infancy and
Toddlerhood Period
2. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
• Sensorimotor Stage
Infants and toddlers are in Piaget's
sensorimotor stage, learning about the world
through their senses and actions.
• Object Permanence
They develop object permanence,
understanding that objects continue to exist
even when they are out of sight.
• Language Development
Babies begin to babble and coo, eventually
 Infancy and
Toddlerhood Period
3. SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
• Attachment
Infants form strong emotional bonds with their
caregivers, known as attachment.
• Social Skills
They begin to interact with others, developing
social skills such as smiling, laughing, and
sharing.
• Emotional Regulation
Infants and toddlers learn to manage their
emotions, such as anger and frustration.
 Infancy and
INFANCY & TODDLERHOOD Toddlerhood
MILESTONE Period
Birth crying, sucking, grasping
2 months smiling, holding head up
4 months rolling over, reaching for objects
6 months sitting up, babbling
8 months crawling, understanding simple words
cruising (holding onto furniture while
10 months
standing), saying a few words
12 months Walking, saying more words
running, pointing to objects, saying more
18 Months
phrases
24 months jumping, saying simple sentences
 Early
Childhood

Early childhood, spanning the ages of 3 to

5, is a period of rapid growth and development
in all areas of a child's life. During this time,
 Early
1. PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT Childhood
• Continued Growth
Children continue to grow at a steady pace.
• Motor Skills
Gross motor skills, such as running, jumping,
and climbing, improve significantly.
Fine motor skills, like drawing and cutting,
also develop.
• Physical Activity
Children need regular physical activity to
support their growth and development.
 Early
Childhood
2. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
• Preoperational Stage
Children are in Piaget's preoperational stage,
characterized by imaginative play and
egocentrism.
• Language Development
Language skills continue to improve rapidly,
and children begin to use more complex
sentences.
• Problem-Solving
Children develop basic problem-solving skills.
 Early
Childhood
3.SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
• Socialization
Children become more social and enjoy
playing with others.
• Emotional Regulation
They learn to manage their emotions
better, but may still have outbursts.
• Self-Esteem
Children begin to develop a sense of self-
esteem.
 Early
Childhood
 Early
Childhood
EARLY CHILDHOOD MILESTONE
running, climbing stairs, drawing
3 years simple shapes, speaking in
complete sentences
jumping, hopping, copying simple
4 years
shapes, telling stories
riding a tricycle, dressing
5 years independently, counting to 10,
using past tense
 Middle
Childhood

Middle childhood, spanning the ages of 6 to

11, is a period of significant growth and
development. Children during this time
become more independent, curious, and
 Middle
1.PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT Childhood
• Steady Growth
Children continue to grow at a steady pace,
though slower than in early childhood.
• Motor Skills
Gross motor skills, such as running,
jumping, and playing sports, improve. Fine
motor skills, like writing and drawing, also
develop.
• Physical Activity
Regular physical activity is essential for
 Middle
Childhood
2. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
• Concrete Operational Stage
Children enter Piaget's concrete operational
stage, characterized by logical thinking and the
ability to understand cause-and-effect
relationships.
• Academic Skills
Children begin to develop academic skills,
such as reading, writing, and math.
• Problem-Solving
They become better at solving problems and
 Middle
Childhood
3.SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
• Peer Relationships
Children form strong friendships and
develop social skills.
• Self-Esteem
Self-esteem continues to develop,
influenced by factors such as academic
performance and social relationships.
• Independence
Children become more independent and
 Middle
MIDDLE CHILDHOOD MILESTONE Childhood
Reading simple words, writing letters,
6 years
understanding basic math concepts
telling time, understanding money, playing
7 years
board games
reading fluently, writing more complex
8 years
sentences, solving simple math problems
understanding fractions, exploring different
9 years
perspectives, developing a sense of humor
writing essays, conducting research,
10 years
developing interests and hobbies
beginning to think abstractly, considering
11 years
moral issues, forming opinions
 Adolescenc
e

Adolescence, typically spanning the ages of 12

to 18, is a period of significant physical, cognitive,
and social-emotional changes. It's a time of
transition from childhood to adulthood, marked by
rapid growth, increased independence, and the
 Adolesce
1.PHYSICAL CHANGES nce
• Puberty
Adolescents experience puberty, a period
of rapid physical growth and sexual
maturation.
• Body Changes
Boys develop larger muscles, a deeper
voice, and facial hair. Girls develop breasts,
wider hips, and begin menstruating.
• Hormonal Changes
Hormonal fluctuations can lead to mood
 Adolesce
2. COGNITIVE CHANGES nce
• Abstract Thinking
Adolescents develop the ability to think
abstractly, reason logically, and consider
multiple perspectives.
• Metacognition
They become more aware of their own
thought processes and can regulate their
learning.
• Decision-Making
Adolescents begin to make more independent
 Adolesce
3.SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT nce
• Identity Formation
Adolescents explore their identity and try
to figure out who they are.
• Peer Relationships
Peer relationships become increasingly
important, and adolescents may spend
more time with friends than family.
• Emotional Turmoil
Hormonal changes and increased
independence can lead to emotional ups and
 Adolesce
CHALLENGES THAT OCCURS DURINGnce
ADOLESCENCE
adolescents may be at risk for
Substance
substance abuse, including
Abuse
alcohol and drugs.
anxiety, depression, and eating
Mental Health
disorders are common among
Issues.
adolescents.
engaging in risky behaviors,
such as unprotected sex, driving
Risky
 Adulthood

Adulthood, generally considered to begin around

age 18, is a long-lasting stage of life characterized
by continued growth, development, and fulfillment.
While the specific experiences and challenges of
adulthood can vary widely, there are some common
 Adulth
1. PHYSICAL CHANGES ood
• Aging
As people age, physical changes become
more noticeable. This includes decreased
muscle mass, decreased bone density, and
changes in vision and hearing.
• Health Concerns
Adults may face various health concerns, such
as chronic diseases, heart problems, and cancer.
• Physical Activity
Regular physical activity can help maintain
 Adulth
ood
2. COGNITIVE CHANGES
• Continued Learning
Adults can continue to learn and grow
throughout their lives. This includes formal
education, job training, and lifelong learning
activities.
• Cognitive Decline
While cognitive decline is a normal part of
aging, it can be slowed down through mental
stimulation and healthy lifestyle choices.
• Wisdom
 Adulth
3. SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT ood
• Relationships
Adults form strong relationships with family,
friends, and romantic partners.
• Work and Career
Work plays a significant role in many adults'
lives, providing income, purpose, and social
connections.Life Transitions: Adults may
experience various life transitions, such as marriage,
parenthood, divorce, and retirement.
• Emotional Maturity
Emotional maturity develops over time, allowing
 Adulth
CHALLENGES THAT OCCURS DURINGood
ADULTHOOD
balancing work, family, and
Work-Life
personal responsibilities can be
Balance
challenging
Financial achieving financial security can
Security be a goal for many adults
adults may need to care for
Caregiving aging parents or other family
members
 ISSUES
IN
DEVELOPME
1.Nature vs. Nurture: A
Complex Interplay
The nature versus nurture
debate is a longstanding
philosophical and scientific inquiry
that explores the relative
contributions of genetic inheritance
(nature) and environmental factors
 Nature Nurture
The Role of Genetics The Influence of Environment

Genetic information Parental influences,

1. Heredity passed down from 1. Upbringing family dynamics, and early
parents to offspring. childhood experiences.

Inherited traits that

influence physical
2. Biological 2. Cultural Societal norms, values,
characteristics,
predispositions factors and expectations.
diseases, and behavioral
tendencies.
Educational
Comparing identical 3. Education opportunities and
and fraternal twins to experiences.
3. Twin studies assess the impact of Significant events that
genetics on various shape development, such as
traits. 4. Life events
trauma or major life
transitions.
 1. Gene-environment
interactions
How genetic factors
interact with
environmental influences
NATU to shape outcomes. NUTUR
2. Epigenetics
RE Changes in gene E
expression caused by
environmental factors, not
changes in the DNA
sequence itself.
3. Plasticity
The brain's ability
to change and adapt in
response to experience.
2. Continuity vs. Discontinuity
in Human Development
The debate of continuity versus
discontinuity in human
development is a longstanding one
among psychologists and
developmental scientists. It centers
on the question of whether human
 Features Continuity Discontinuity
 Suggests that
 Suggests that human
human development
development is a gradual
Definition occurs in distinct
and cumulative process,
stages, much like a
much like a ramp.
staircase.
 Abrupt changes or
 Gradual and incremental
leaps in
changes
development
 No distinct stages  Distinct stages
Characteristics
 Qualitative
 Quantitative development
development (e.g.,
(e.g., increasing
Piaget's cognitive
vocabulary, height, or
development
weight)
stages)
3. Active versus Passive
The debate over active versus
passive development in human
psychology is a longstanding one.
It explores the extent to which
individuals are agents of their own
growth or merely shaped by
external forces.
 Features Active Development Passive Development
 Active participant,  Shaped by external
Role of the individual constructing forces, reacting to
knowledge stimuli
 Discovery-based,  Conditioning,
View of learning seeking new associating behaviors
information with outcomes

Theorists  Piaget, Vygotsky  Skinner, Watson

 Internal processes,  External factors,

Emphasis cognitive environmental
development influences
 A child experimenting
 A child learning to
with different toys to
Examples avoid touching a hot
understand their
stove because it hurts
properties
THEORIES IN
CHILD
DEVELOPME
THEORY
A theory is a guideline that
helps researchers interpret
research findings. It provides a
blueprint or model for
understanding and piecing
together different studies.
Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual
Theory
Sigmund Freud, a renowned Austrian
neurologist and psychoanalyst, proposed
a groundbreaking theory of child
development that emphasized the role of
unconscious sexual impulses in shaping
personality. His theory, known as the
psychosexual theory, divided childhood
into several stages, each marked by a
specific erogenous zone and a
corresponding conflict that must be
resolved.
Stage Age Range Erogenous Conflict Fixation
Zone
• Oral fixation (e.g.,
Oral 0 – 1 year Mouth • Weaning overeating,
excessive talking)
• Anal retentive (neat,
organized) or anal
Anal 1 – 3 years Anus • Toilet training
expulsive (messy,
rebellious)
• Issues with authority
• Oedipus or Electra
Phallic 3 – 6 years Genitals figures, sexual
complex
identity
• Sexual urges are • No significant
Latency 6 – 11 years None
dormant fixation
• Maturation of
• No significant
sexual desires,
Adolescence fixation (assuming
Genital Genitals development of
& Adulthood previous stages
healthy
were resolved)
relationships
Freud's Theory of Self: The Id, Ego, and Superego

Freud's theory of self posits that the human mind is composed of three
interconnected parts: the id, the ego, and the superego. These parts interact
dynamically to shape our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

Part of the Self Characteristics Example

 Inborn, guided by the
Id pleasure principle, seeks  A baby crying for food
immediate gratification
 Develops through
interaction with others, 
A child wanting a candy
guided by the reality
Ego but waiting until after
principle, mediates
dinner
between id and
superego
 Represents society's
Superego demands, guided by  Feeling guilty for lying
morality and conscience
Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
Erik Erikson proposed a theory of
psychosocial development that
emphasized the role of social and cultural
factors in shaping personality. He
suggested that development occurs
throughout the lifespan and involves a
series of crises or challenges that must be
resolved.
 Stage Age Crisis Example
 A baby who is consistently cared
Can I trust the for develops trust. A baby who is
Trust vs. Mistrust 0–1
world? neglected or abused may develop
mistrust.
 A toddler who is allowed to explore
Autonomy vs. and make choices develops
Can I do things
Shame and 1–3 autonomy. A toddler who is overly
on my own?
Doubt restricted or criticized may develop
shame and doubt.
 A child who is encouraged to try
Can I take on new things develops initiative. A
Initiative vs. Guilt 3–6
challenges? child who is constantly punished or
criticized may develop guilt.
 A child who succeeds in school and
Industry vs. extracurricular activities develops
6 - 11 Am I competent?
Inferiority industry. A child who struggles may
develop feelings of inferiority.
 Stage Age Crisis Example
 An adolescent who explores different
roles and identities develops a
Identity vs. Role
Adolescence Who am I? strong sense of self. An adolescent
Confusion
who is unable to figure out who they
are may experience role confusion.
 An adult who is able to form deep
Young
and meaningful relationships
Intimacy vs. adulthood Can I form close
develops intimacy. An adult who
Isolation (late teens to relationships?
struggles with relationships may
early 30s)
experience isolation.
 An adult who feels they have made
Middle
Have I contributed a positive impact on the world
Generativity vs. adulthood
to the next develops generativity. An adult who
Stagnation (30s to early
generation? feels they have not contributed
60)
much may experience stagnation.
 An adult who is satisfied with their
Can I look back on life and accomplishments develops
Ego Integrity vs. Late adulthood
my life with ego integrity. An adult who regrets
Despair (60s onward)
satisfaction? their choices may experience
despair.
 Behaviorism is a psychological approach
that emphasizes the role of learning and
conditioning in shaping behavior. It focuses on
observable behaviors rather than internal
mental processes.
Ivan Pavlov's Theory of Classical
Conditioning
Classical conditioning is a type of
learning in which an organism comes to
associate an initially neutral stimulus with
a meaningful stimulus. This process was
first demonstrated by Russian
physiologist Ivan Pavlov in his
experiments with dogs.
 Concept Explanation Example
 A stimulus that
Unconditioned Stimulus
naturally elicits a Food
(UCS)
response.
 A naturally occurring
Unconditioned Response
response to a Salivation
(UCR)
stimulus.
 A stimulus that does
Neutral Stimulus (NS) not initially elicit a Bell
response.
 A previously neutral
stimulus that has
Conditioned Stimulus
been associated with Bell
(CS)
a meaningful
stimulus.
 A learned response to
Conditioned Response
a conditioned Salivation
(CR)
John B. Watson's Classical
Conditioning Theory
John B. Watson was an American
psychologist known for his work in
behaviorism. He believed that psychology
should focus on observable behaviors rather
than unobservable mental processes. His
most famous experiment involved
conditioning a young child named Little
Albert to fear a white rat by pairing it with a
loud noise. Watson's work had a significant
influence on the development of behaviorism
and applied psychology.
 Concept Explanation Example
 A stimulus that does not
elicit a particular
Neutral Stimulus (NS) A toy car.
response before
conditioning.
 A stimulus that elicits a
Unconditioned Stimulus
natural, unlearned A loud noise.
(US)
response.
 A natural, unlearned
Unconditioned Response
response to an Fear or crying.
(UR)
unconditioned stimulus.
 A previously neutral
stimulus that has come
to elicit a conditioned
Conditioned Stimulus (CS) The toy car.
response through
association with an
unconditioned stimulus.
 A learned response to a
Conditioned Response (CR) Fear or crying.
conditioned stimulus.
B.F. Skinner and Operant
Conditioning
B.F. Skinner was a renowned American
psychologist and behaviorist. He is best
known for his research on operant
conditioning, which explores how behavior is
shaped by its consequences. Skinner
believed that behavior is learned through
reinforcement and punishment, and he
conducted numerous experiments to
demonstrate these principles. His work has
had a significant impact on fields such as
psychology, education, and animal training.
 Concept Explanation Example
 Learning through
consequences. A  A child is given a sticker for
Operant behavior is more likely sharing their toys. This
Conditioning to be repeated if it is positive reinforcement
followed by a positive encourages sharing.
outcome (reinforcer).
 A child receives praise for
 Anything that increases completing a puzzle. This
Reinforcement the likelihood of a praise reinforces the
behavior. behavior of completing
puzzles.
 A teacher gives a child a
 Adding something
Positive candy for raising their hand.
desirable to increase a
Reinforcement This positive reinforcement
behavior.
encourages raising hands.
 Concept Explanation Example
 A child is given a sticker for
 Removing something
Negative sharing their toys. This positive
unpleasant to increase a
Reinforcement reinforcement encourages
behavior.
sharing.
 Introducing something  A child is put in time-out for
Reinforcement unpleasant to decrease a hitting another child. This
behavior. punishment discourages hitting.
 A teacher gives a child a candy
 Adding something
for raising their hand. This
Punishment desirable to increase a
positive reinforcement
behavior.
encourages raising hands.
 A child enjoys playing with a toy
Intrinsic  Natural rewards that are
because it's fun. This is intrinsic
Reinforcement immediately understood.
reinforcement.
 Rewards that have value
 A child receives a toy for good
Extrinsic because they can be
behavior. This is extrinsic
Reinforcement exchanged for something
reinforcement.
else.
Albert Bandura and Social Learning
Theory
Social Learning Theory as presented by
Albert Bandura emphasizes the significant
role of observation and imitation in learning.
It posits that individuals learn behaviors by
observing and modeling the actions of
others, particularly those they perceive as
influential or rewarding.
Social Learning Theory
Concepts
Concept Explanation Example
 Learning by observing and  A child learns how to say "please"
Modeling imitating the behavior of and "thank you" by observing their
others. parents using these phrases.
 The tendency to engage in  A child is more likely to share their
Vicarious
behaviors that are seen as toys with others if they see their
Reinforcement
being rewarded in others. friends being praised for sharing.
 The interactive relationship
between individuals and their  A child who enjoys reading may
Reciprocal environments. People choose to join a book club, which
Determinism influence their surroundings, can further foster their interest in
and their surroundings reading.
influence them.
 The first step in observational
 A child is more likely to imitate a
learning. Individuals must
Attention parent's behavior if they are paying
pay attention to the behavior
attention to them.
being modeled.
Social Learning Theory
Concepts
Concept Explanation Example
 A child who has observed
 The ability to remember their parent cooking a meal
Retention can remember the steps
the observed behavior.
involved and try to cook the
meal themselves later.
 A child who has watched
 The ability to physically
their older sibling ride a bike
Reproduction reproduce the observed
may be able to reproduce
behavior.
the behavior themselves.
 A child is more likely to
 The expectation that imitate a behavior if they
Motivation the behavior will lead to believe it will lead to a
a desired outcome. reward, such as praise or
attention.
 The Bobo
Doll
Experiment
The Bobo Doll Experiment and Media
Influence
The Bobo Doll Experiment serves as a
foundational study in understanding the impact of
observational learning on behavior. Bandura's
experiment, where children observed an adult
aggressively assaulting a doll and then replicated
those behaviors, demonstrated the power of
modeling. This experiment has significant
implications for understanding how media
violence can influence children's behavior.
Media Influence on Children's Behavior:
 Desensitization
Exposure to frequent violence in media can lead to desensitization,
making children less likely to be disturbed by aggressive acts.
 Normalization of Violence
When violence is portrayed as acceptable or even rewarded in
media, children may internalize these messages and believe that
violence is a normal and acceptable way to resolve conflicts.
 Imitation
Children may imitate aggressive behaviors seen in media,
particularly if those behaviors are portrayed as positive or rewarded.
 Increased Aggression
Studies have linked exposure to media violence to increased
aggressive behavior in children.
The Role of Parental Guidance:
 Media Monitoring
Parents can play a crucial role in monitoring their
children's media consumption and selecting age-
appropriate content.
 Open Communication
Engaging in open and honest conversations with
children about media violence can help them develop
critical thinking skills and understand the potential
negative consequences.
 Positive Role Modeling
Parents can serve as positive role models by
demonstrating peaceful and respectful behavior.
The Role of Parental Guidance:
 Media Monitoring
Parents can play a crucial role in monitoring their
children's media consumption and selecting age-
appropriate content.
 Open Communication
Engaging in open and honest conversations with
children about media violence can help them develop
critical thinking skills and understand the potential
negative consequences.
 Positive Role Modeling
Parents can serve as positive role models by
demonstrating peaceful and respectful behavior.
Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive
Development
Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist
renowned for his groundbreaking research on
child development. His theory of cognitive
development posits that children actively
construct their understanding of the world
through interaction with their environment.
Piaget proposed four stages of cognitive
development, each characterized by distinct
ways of thinking.
 Stage Age Range Characteristics Example
 Infants learn through
senses and motor actions.  A baby searches for a toy
Sensorimotor 0 – 2 years
Object permanence hidden under a blanket.
develops.
 Children use symbols
(language, images) but  A child believes that their
Preoperational 2 – 7 years lack logical reasoning. dad sees the world from the
Egocentrism and same perspective as them.
centration are common.
 Children can think
logically about concrete  A child realizes that a ball
Concrete objects and events. of clay remains the same
7 – 11 years
Operational Understand conservation amount, even if it's shaped
of mass, weight, and differently.
volume.
 Adolescents can think
abstractly and  A teenager can imagine
Formal
12+ years hypothetically. Engage in different possible scenarios
Operational
scientific reasoning and and their consequences.
problem-solving.
Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
Lev Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist
who developed the sociocultural theory of
cognitive development. His theory emphasizes
the role of social interaction and cultural factors
in shaping a child's thinking and learning.
Vygotsky believed that children learn through
interaction with others, such as parents,
teachers, and peers. He introduced the concept
of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD),
which is the gap between what a child can do
independently and what they can do with
guidance.
 Lev Vygotsky's Zone of
Proximal Development
(ZPD) is the gap between
what a learner can do
independently and what they
can do with assistance. It
represents the child's potential
for growth and learning.
 Vygotsky's scaffolding is a
teaching technique that involves
providing temporary support to a
learner as they are acquiring new
skills. It's like building a bridge
between the learner's current
abilities and their desired goals.
The support is gradually
withdrawn as the learner
becomes more competent.
Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological
Systems Model
Urie Bronfenbrenner was a renowned
developmental psychologist who
proposed the Ecological Systems Model to
explain the interconnectedness of various
environmental factors that influence
human development. This model
emphasizes the importance of context
and the interplay between individual and
environmental systems.
Name of System Description of System Example
 The immediate
Microsystem environment a child  Family, school, peers
directly interacts with.
 A parent's relationship
 The interactions
with a teacher
Mesosystem between different
influencing a child's
microsystems.
behavior in school.
 Larger institutions that  Government policies,
Exosystem indirectly affect the mass media, healthcare
individual. systems
 Cultural expectations
 Cultural values, beliefs,
Macrosystem about gender roles,
and societal norms.
educational systems
 Historical events,
 The dimension of time
economic changes,
Chronosystem that influences all other
technological
systems.
advancements
 Happy Teachers’
Day!
"Children are like wet cement. Whatever you pour
into them will set." - Unknown