Chapter 2

Measuring and Explaining Crime

Chapter Objectives

• Identify the publication in which the FBI • Explain the differences between
reports crime data and list the three crimes mala in se and mala prohibita.
ways in which the data are reported.
• Describe the National Crime
• Distinguish between Part I and Part II Victimization Survey.
offenses as defined in the Uniform
Crime Report (UCR). • Explain the difference between a
crime report (UCR) and crime survey
• Discuss the prevailing explanation for (NCVS).
the rising number of women
incarcerated in the United States. • Corpus Delicti and the elements of a
crime will be discussed during the
• Discuss the difference between a
chapter 4 lecture presentation.
hypothesis and a theory in the context
of criminology. • Explain the “Twinkie Defense” and
• List and briefly explain two important identify the case in which it became
branches of social process theory. important.

• Discuss the connection between

offenders and victims of crimes.
• Explain the theory of the chronic
offender and its importance for the
criminal justice system.
Counting Crime, Criminals,
and Victims

• National Crime Statistics are

collected, analyzed and published by
two major sources.
• Uniform Crime Report (UCR) Published
by the FBI. It is divided into Part I and
Part II offenses (crimes).
• National Crime Victimization Survey
Published by the Bureau of Justice
Statistics (BJS).
• California Crime Data published by the
California Office of the Attorney
General.
Uniform Crime Reports (UCR)
Part 1 Indexed Crime

1. Criminal Homicide
2. Forcible Rape
3. Robbery
4. Aggravated Assault
5. Burglary
6. Larceny Theft
7. Grand Theft Auto
8. Arson
Uniform Crime Reports (UCR)
Part 2 Indexed Crime

1. FORGERY 12. VAGRANCY

2. FRAUD AND NSF CHECKS 13. GAMBLING
3. SEX OFFENSES FELONIES 14. DRUNK DRIVING VEHICLE / BOAT
4. SEX OFFENSES MISDEMEANORS 15. VEHICLE / BOATING LAWS
5. NON-AGGRAVATED ASSAULTS 16. VANDALISM
6. WEAPON LAWS 17. WARRANTS
7. OFFENSES AGAINST FAMILY 18. RECEIVING STOLEN PROPERTY
8. NARCOTICS 19. FEDERAL OFFENSES W/O MONEY
9. LIQUOR LAWS 20. FEDERAL OFFENSES WITH
MONEY
10. DRUNK / ALCOHOL / DRUGS
21. FELONIES MISCELLANEOUS
11. DISORDERLY CONDUCT
22. MISDEMEANORS
MISCELLANEOUS
How a crime rate is
determined

• CRIME RATE – A crime rate describes

the number of crimes reported to law
enforcement agencies per 100,000
total population.
• A crime rate is calculated by dividing
the number of reported crimes by the
total population; the result is
multiplied by 100,000.
• For example, in 2010 there were
58,100 robberies in California and the
population was 38,826,898. This
equals a robbery crime rate of 149.6
per 100,000 general population.
Is My City Safe?

• City of San Jose

• Santa Clara County Cities .pdf

FBI Uniform Crime Report 2019

World Murder Rates
US Murders by State 2019
(not murder rate)
US Murders by State 2019
(not murder rate)
Self reported crime data
Rape: The most unreported
violent crime in America
Self reported crime data

• Asks respondents to talk about their

criminal activities.
• Measures the “dark figure of crime”.
• Reveals that crime is a very common
activity.
• Demonstrates youth crime is spread
throughout the social classes.
• Is probably a reliable measure of
trends over a period of time.
General crime trends

• American is experiencing a crime

wave unlike anything we’ve seen this
century. After decades of decline,
shootings have surged in the past few
years.
• In 2020, gun deaths reached their
highest point in U.S. history amid a
pandemic. In 2021, although
researchers can’t yet say anything
definite about overall crime, shooting Why America’s Great Crime Decline
incidents appear to be on the rise in Is Over
many places.
• We have also already witnessed
several mass shootings, including the
murder of spa and massage workers
in the Atlanta area and a grocery-store
massacre in Boulder, Colorado.
Americans can no longer say, as we
could 10 years ago, that we are living
in the safest time in our nation’s
history.
Solving crime by making
arrests

• About 15 million arrests are made each year. • In certain situations, elements beyond law
enforcement’s control prevent the agency
• Arrests are referred to “clearance” in UCR from arresting and formally charging the
statistics. offender. When this occurs, the agency can
clear the offense exceptionally. Law
• Many crimes are “cleared” without an arrest enforcement agencies must meet the
by exceptional means. following four conditions in order to clear an
offense by exceptional means. The agency
must have:
• Identified the offender.
• Gathered enough evidence to support an
arrest, make a charge, and turn over the
offender to the court for prosecution.
• Identified the offender’s exact location so
that the suspect could be taken into custody
immediately.
• Encountered a circumstance outside the
control of law enforcement that prohibits the
agency from arresting, charging, and
prosecuting the offender.
• Examples of exceptional clearances include,
but are not limited to, the death of the
offender (e.g., suicide or justifiably killed by
police or citizen); the victim’s refusal to
cooperate with the prosecution after the
offender has been identified; or the denial of
Clearance Rates

Overall, police “clear” approximately 20% of all reported crimes

Counting crime, criminals and
victims using official data
Analysis of Uniform Crime
Reports

• Not all crime is reported • Of the 10.9 million crimes which

individual adults aged 16 years and
• Administrative errors in recording over experienced in the past year
data: (2020), only 27% were reported to the
• Interpreting UCR definitions authorities.
• Systematic counting errors • Reporting rates vary substantially,
• Deliberately altered or with more-serious crimes more likely
manipulated data to be reported. Fraud makes up
almost half of victim-based crime but
• Methodological problems is particularly unlikely to be reported,
dragging down the overall average.
National Crime Victimization
Survey

• Data is gathered by the Bureau of

Census and compiled by the Bureau of
Justice Statistics.
• Sample includes 100,000 people in
50,000 households.
• Respondents are over the age of 12.
• Respondents queried every six
months about household and personal
victimizations.
Who are crime victims
Murder in Los Angeles County
The Ecology of Victimization

• Most victimizations occur in large urban areas.

• Most incidents occur in the evening hours
• The most likely sites are open public areas
• An overwhelming number involve only one victim
• Most serious crimes take place after 6 PM
Most crime is intra-racial

• Not inter-racial
• Black gangs target other Black gangs
• Latino gangs target other Latino
gangs
• Blacks accounted for 13% of the U.S.
population in 2020 but were victims in
15% of all nonfatal violent crimes and
nearly half of all homicides.
Comparison: UCR v. NCVS

UCR NCVS
• Scope
• Scope
• Crimes reported to the
• Both reported and unreported to
police in most police nationwide
jurisdictions
• Collection Method
• Collection Method • Survey Interview
• Police departments and
FBI • Kinds of Information
• Details about victims and crimes
• Kinds of Information - reported and unreported. Use of
• Offense counts; crime weapons, injuries, economic
effects
clearances;
• persons arrested, • Sponsor
persons • Bureau of Justice Statistics
• charged; officers killed,
• characteristics of
homicide victims
• Sponsor - FBI
 Are Crime Statistics
Accurate?

• Data Reliability • Data Validity

• If the data are counted over • Do the data really measure
and over, will the same what they intend to
results be obtained? measure?
Realities of Crime

• All crimes are not treated the same by

the criminal justice system.
• All criminals are not treated the same
by the criminal justice system.
• Much of the public has a distorted
understanding about criminal justice
processes.
• If a defendant has the finances or
wealth to hire a “dream team” of legal
representation, odds of a favorable
verdict or appeal are greatly
enhanced, especially in complicated
or very technical cases.
Realities of Crime
Factors effecting crime trends

• Age (number 1 factor)

• Economy
• Social Problems
• Firearms
• Gangs
• Drugs
• Justice Policy
What is the impact of crime?

• Economic Costs – loss of property,

lower productivity, medical care.
• Psychological and Emotional Costs –
pain, trauma, and the lost quality of
life.
• Cost of operating the criminal justice
system.
What is the impact of crime?

• Stolen vehicles are maddening and affecting a growing number of drivers. San Jose
police report there’s been a stunning 49.2% increase in vehicle thefts when
comparing January-February 2021 with January-February 2020. Nationally, there
was a 9 percent increase.
• The pandemic, economic downturn, loss of juvenile outreach programs and public
safety budgetary limitations are likely contributing factors. Thieves exploit
opportunities and may look for vehicles parked in the same location or persons not
taking proper measures to secure their vehicles
• There is no single location where vehicle thefts are most likely to occur. They are
spread throughout San Jose.
• Police found most vehicles (70%) were stolen from a public street, rather than a
parking lot or driveway. The majority were locked, and their windows were rolled
up (88%).
• A bit of good news is that the vast majority of stolen vehicles were recovered
(95%). Of those, 13% were being driven at the time and the driver was taken into
custody.
What is the impact of crime?

• The most frequently stolen

vehicles:

• 2000 Honda Civic

• 1997 Honda Accord
• 2003 full-size Ford pickup
• 2001 full-sized Chevrolet pickup
• 2008 Toyota Camry
• 2000 Honda CRV
• 2018 Toyota Corolla
• 2018 full-sized GMC pickup
• 2015 Nissan Altima
• 1998 Toyota Tacoma
What is a crime theory?

• A general statement or set of • The study and practice of criminology

statements that explain many delves into crime causation and
different facts by reference to factors that contribute to offender
underlying principles and criminality.
relationships.
• This means considering four basic
• Why did someone commit a crime. theories: Rational Choice,
Sociological Positivism, Biological
• Juries love a motive although it is not Positivism and Psychological
an element of any crime. Positivism.
• Police officers must be prepared to • The theories rely on logic to explain
deliver honest and professional why a person commits a crime and
testimony that should include whether the criminal act is the result
• Possible motives of a rational decision, internal
• Related Evidence to motive predisposition or external aspects. The
law and judicial system is structured
around use of these theories.
General Types of Crime
Theories

• TraitTheories
• Cesare Lombroso (1835 – 1909)
• “Father of Criminology”
• Criminals are throwbacks to early
mankind
• Essentially, Lombroso believed
that criminality was inherited
and that criminals could be
identified by physical defects
that confirmed them as being
atavistic or savage. ... As a
result, Lombroso became known
as the father of modern
criminology.
General Types of Crime
Theories

• Psychological Theories
• Personality, developmental,
social learning or cognition
• Sociological Theories
• Social forces and socialization
patterns
• Trait or Biological Theories
• Biochemical conditions influence
criminal behavior
• And, of course, free will or choice
theory,
General Types of Crime
Theories

• Trait Theory
• Some trait theories suggest that
offenders have abnormal biochemical
levels or organic substances that
influence their behavior and, in some
way, make the prone to anti-social
behavior. “Twinkie Defense”.
• You are what you eat
General Types of Crime
Theories

• Is it possible to understand why an

individual commits a crime?
• Does it really matter?
• The study of criminals and their
victims is called criminology.
• The title of someone who majored in
criminology would be criminologist.
San Francisco Mayor murder
The “Twinkie” Defense

• The Twinkie Defense

• Reduced Dan White’s conviction to
manslaughter
• What you eat can affect your behavior
• Today that trait theory applies to
sugar in a diet.

1979 Button
The “Twinkie” Defense
Why did this person kill?

• The next few slides have photographs

of some well know criminals.
• This is not a graded exercise, if you
don’t know who the individual is or
their crimes it doesn’t matter, you can
click on their picture or research the
internet for more information.
• Can you fit their crimes to a specific
theory?

Samuel Little
Most prolific serial
killer in US history
Why did this person kill?

Aileen Wuornos was responsible

for the deaths of seven men, all
of whom she killed while
operating as a sex worker in
Florida from 1989 to 1990.
 Why did this person kill?

Richard Ramirez, known as the “Night Stalker” was

an American serial killer. Ramirez spent over two
years of his life raping and torturing over 25 victims
and killing more than a dozen people. Most of these
crimes were committed in the victims California
homes.
Why did this person kill?

• The South Carolina mother who

confessed to killing her two young
sons more than two decades ago has
written a letter from behind bars
explaining that "something went very
wrong that night."
• Susan Smith, 43, was convicted in
1995 of murdering 3-year-old Michael
and 14-month-old Alex by strapping
them into their car seats in her
burgundy Mazda and then letting her
car roll into a lake in the mill town of
Union, where she lived.

Susan Smith
Why did this person kill?

Theodore Robert Bundy (born Cowell; November 24, 1946 – January 24, 1989) was an American
serial killer who kidnapped, raped, and murdered numerous young women and girls during the
1970s and possibly earlier. After more than a decade of denials, he confessed to 30 homicides,
committed in seven states between 1974 and 1978. His true victim total is unknown and believed
by some investigators to be higher.
Why did this person kill?

The California Supreme Court on Wednesday ordered a reexamination of Scott Peterson's 2004
conviction in the murder of his pregnant wife, Laci Peterson, and their unborn son. The court
overturned his death sentence in late August of this year.

The case has been remanded to the San Mateo County Superior Court.
 Chapter 2
Measuring and Explaining Crime