METALS

Characteristics of metals
• Metals are elements that are found mainly in Groups I, II and III of the
periodic table, and between Groups II and III as the transition metals. The
atoms of most metals have 1, 2 or 3 valence electrons.
• The type of bonding between metal atoms in a metal is known as metallic
bonding. In metallic bonding a metal lattice is composed of metal cations
surrounded by a ‘sea’ of delocalized, mobile electrons and that lattice is held
together by strong electrostatic forces of attraction between the positive
cations and the delocalized, negative electrons.
• Because of this type of bonding metals show different physical and chemical
properties.
Physical properties of metals
Metals have common physical properties as a result of the metallic bonding
between metal atoms in the metallic lattice.

• Metals have high melting and boiling points.

• Metals are solid at room temperature (except mercury).
• Metals are good conductors of electricity and heat.
• Metals are malleable and ductile. Metals are shiny in appearance.
• Metals have high densities.
Property Reason

High melting and The electrostatic forces of attraction between the positive cations and negative,
boiling point delocalized electrons are relatively strong. As a result, large amounts of heat energy are
required to separate the atoms in order to melt or boil the metals. All metals are found in
the solid state at room temperature with the exception of mercury which is a liquid

Good conductors of The moving electrons acts as charge carriers/heat carriers allowing an electric current to
electricity and heat be carried through the metal.

Shiny lustre Lustre is shininess of a metal which is due to the mobile electrons reflecting photons of
light back from the metal surface.

Hard, Malleable They are hard since they are not easily damaged when a force is applied, malleable
and ductile meaning that they can be bent and hammered into different shapes and ductile meaning
that they can be pulled into wires. This is because the atoms in a metal are all of the
same type and same size. If a force is applied to the metal, the atoms can roll over each
other into new positions without breaking the metallic bond.
High density Metals have a high density because their atoms are packed very closely together.
Chemical properties of metals
When they react, metals ionise by losing electrons to form positive cations.
The metal behaves as a reducing agent because it gives electrons to the other
reactant (it causes the other reactant to gain electrons). This results in the
formation of ionic compounds.

Some metals react vigorously, even violently, with acids, oxygen and water,
whilst others are relatively unreactive. Potassium, sodium, calcium and
magnesium are the most reactive, whilst aluminium, zinc and iron are less
reactive, and copper and silver are relatively unreactive.
The reaction of metals with oxygen
• When metals react with oxygen they form ionic compounds know as
metal oxides.

• If the metal oxides produced in these reactions can dissolve in water,

the resulting solution is alkaline.
The reaction of metals with water
• When a metal reacts with water, the metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas are
produced.

• When a metal reacts with steam, the metal oxide and hydrogen gas are
produced.
The reaction of metals with dilute acids
• Reactive metals react with acids, except nitric acid, to form a salt and
hydrogen
•.
Reactions of metal compounds
• Reaction of metal oxides
Metal oxides react with acids to form a salt and water. This reaction is know as
a neutralization reaction since the metal oxide is a base that neutralizes the
acid to form a salt and water.
• Reactions of metal hydroxides
Metal hydroxides also react with acids to form to salt and water. This reaction
is also a neutralization reaction since the metal hydroxide is a base and it
neutralizes the acid to form a salt and water.
• Reactions of metal carbonates
Metal carbonates react with acids to form a salt, carbon dioxide and water.
• Decomposition of metal compounds
Many metal compounds decompose when they are heated.
The reactivity of metals
• The reactivity of metals varies greatly and this has an impact on how the
metal s occur in the Earth's crust, how they are extracted and their uses.
When metals are arranged in order according to how reactive they are, the
reactivity series of metals is produced.
• The reactivity series of metals arranges the metals in order from the most
reactive to the least reactive. It is based on the following:
How vigorously the metals react with dilute acids (hydrochloric acid and
sulfuric acid), oxygen and water.
How easily metal compounds are decomposed when they are heated.
Whether or not a metal will displace another metal from its compounds.
The reactivity is determined by how easily the metal atoms ionise; the more
easily a metal ionises, the more reactive it is.
• Metals at the top of the series ionise the most easily, which makes them the
most reactive. They are the strongest reducing agents because they give away
electrons the most easily. Their ions are very stable, which makes their
compounds very stable.

• Metals at the bottom of the series ionise the least easily which makes them
the least reactive. They are the weakest reducing agents because they give
away electrons the least easily. Their ions are very unstable, which makes their
compounds very unstable.
The extraction of metals
• Silver, gold and other unreactive metals can be mined directly from the
Earth's crust, where they occur in their free elemental state. Most metals are
found combined with other elements in impure ionic compounds, known as
ores. The metals have to be extracted from these ores. Metal oxides, sulfides
and carbonates are some of the most important ores.
• During extraction from its ore, the metal cations are discharged to form
atoms by gaining electrons. The extraction of metals is therefore a reduction
process:
Choosing an extraction method
The extraction method used depends on the position of the metal in the
reactivity series:
• Metals high in the reactivity series (aluminium and above) are extracted by
electrolysis of their molten ores. They require a powerful method of reduction
because they form very stable ions which are difficult to reduce. Electrolysis is
a powerful method, but it uses a lot of energy and is very expensive.
• Metals lower down in the series (zinc and below) are extracted by heating
their ores with a reducing agent such as carbon, carbon monoxide or
hydrogen. They require a less powerful method of reduction than electrolysis
because their ions are less stable and easier to reduce. Heating their ores with
a reducing agent is a less powerful method, uses less energy and is less
expensive than electrolysis.
Extraction of Aluminium
• Aluminium is the third most abundant in the Earth’s crust after oxygen and
silicon, and the most abundant metal.
Ores: bauxite - impure, hydrated aluminium oxide, AI2O3.xH2O. Bauxite is the
main ore.
cryolite - sodium aluminium fluoride, Na3AIF6
The extraction is carried out by electrolysis.

The electrolysis of alumina takes place in a large tank lined with carbon, which
forms an electrolytic cell the carbon lining acts as the negative cathode in the
electrolysis process. In the middle of the tank there are huge blocks of carbon
which act as the positive anode.
Steps in the electrolysis of Aluminium
The bauxite is purified. This forms pure, anhydrous aluminium oxide, also
known as alumina, Al2O3
The alumina is dissolved in molten cryolite at about 950 °C to separate the
ions.
The melting point of alumina is 2050 °C and molten alumina is a poor
conductor.
Dissolving it in molten cryolite reduces its melting temperature which reduces
the energy required. The solution produced is also a better conductor than
molten alumina.
The molten solution of alumina in cryolite is electrolysed in an electrolytic cell.
Steps in the electrolysis of Aluminium
• The aluminium ions move toward s the cathode and are reduced to form
aluminium atoms:
Al3+(I)  Al(l)
Molten aluminium collects at the bottom o f the cell. It is tapped off and made
into blocks or sheets.
• The oxide ions move towards the anode and are oxidised to form oxygen
gas:
2O-(l)  O2g) + 4e –
Oxygen gas is evolved at the anode.
An electrolytic cell used for the extraction of aluminium
Extraction of iron
Ores: Haematite – impure iron (III) oxide Fe2O3
Magnetite – impure iron(II, III) Fe3O4
Extraction of iron from haematite and magnetite is carried out by reducing the
ores using the reducing agent, carbon monoxide (CO), in a blast furnace.
• A mixture of the iron ores, coke (carbon) and limestone (calcium carbonate)
is added through the top of the furnace.
• Hot air is blown in through the bottom of the furnace.
• In the bottom part of the furnace, coke reacts with the oxygen in the air to
produce carbon dioxide:
Extraction of iron
The reaction is exothermic. The heat produced keeps the bottom of the
furnace at a temperature of about 1900 oC. The carbon dioxide moves up the
furnace.
As it reaches the middle part of the furnace, the carbon dioxide reacts with
more of the hot coke, and is reduced to carbon monoxide:

o In the top part of the furnace, the carbon monoxide reduces the iron ores to
iron:
Extraction of iron
The molten iron runs to the bottom of the furnace and is tapped off.
The iron, known as 'pig iron', is impure.
It contains about 4% carbon, and other impurities such as silicon and
phosphorus.
Most of the pig iron is purified and converted into an alloy of iron known as
steel.
Blast furnace used for the extraction of iron
The role of the limestone
Iron ores contain a lot of impurities which are not removed before the ores are put
into the blast furnace. The main impurity is silicon dioxide (sand). Limestone is
added to remove the silicon dioxide so it does not build up in the furnace.
In the top part of the furnace the heat causes the calcium carbonante to
decompose to form calcium oxide and carbon dioxide:

Calcium oxide is basic (as it is a metal oxide) and silicon dioxide is acidic (as it is a
non-metal oxide). The two then react to form calcium silicate, Ca5iO" also known
as slag:

The molten slag runs to the bottom of the furnace where it floats on the molten
iron and is tapped off separately. When solidified it can be used as aggregate in
concrete for construction purposes, mixed with asphalt and used to build roads, or
finely ground and used in the production of cement.
Uses and properties of metals
Alloys and uses of alloys
Alloys are mixtures of two or more metals, though a few also contain non-
metals. Alloys are produced to improve or to modify the properties of metals.
The atoms of the metals in an alloy are usually of different sizes. This changes
the regular packing of the atoms, which makes it more difficult for them to
slide over each other when force is applied. This usually makes alloys harder
and stronger than the pure metals. They are also usually more resistant to
corrosion and are often used in place of pure metals.
Aluminium alloys
Iron alloys
Impact of metals on living systems
and the environment
Certain metal ions play vital roles in living organisms while others can be
extremely harmful. At the same time, the environment can have a significant
effect on metals used in everyday activities.
Corrosion of metals
Corrosion takes place when the surface of a metal is gradually worn away by
reacting with chemicals in the environment, mainly oxygen and water vapour.
Certain pollutants speed up the process. When a metal corrodes, it is oxidised
to form the metal oxide. Salts may also form, e.g. the reaction with carbon
dioxide forms carbonates. In general, the higher a metal is in the reactivity
series, the faster it corrodes.
Corrosion of aluminium
The corrosion of aluminium is generally beneficial. When a fresh piece of
aluminium is exposed to air, it immediately forms a layer of aluminium oxide
(AI2O3). This layer adheres to the metal surface, does not flake off and is
relatively unreactive. It therefore protects the aluminium from further
corrosion. The thickness of this layer can be increased by anodizing.

Corrosion of iron (rusting)

The corrosion of iron is detrimental. When iron and steel objects are exposed
to oxygen and moisture, they immediately begin to corrode forming mainly
hydrated iron(III) oxide, Fe2O3.xH,O, commonly known as rust. The corrosion
of iron and steel is called rusting. Rust does not adhere to the iron below, it
flakes off instead. This exposes fresh iron to oxygen and moisture, which then
rusts and the rust flakes off. The process continues and the iron is gradually
worn away.
The importance of metals and their compounds
in living organisms

The human body requires certain metal ions in relatively large quantities
(more than 100 mg per day). These are called macrominerals and include
calcium, potassium, sodium and magnesium. Others, known as microminerals
or trace minerals, are needed in much smaller quantities, e.g. iron, zinc,
manganese, cobalt, copper, molybdenum, selenium and chromium. Plants
also require minerals for healthy growth and development.
Harmful effects of metals and their compounds
The ions of certain transition metals and metalloids, known as heavy metal
ions, are toxic to living organisms, especially when combined with organic
compounds to form organometallic compounds. These metal ions occur
naturally; however, pollution caused by human activities is causing their
concentrations within the environment to increase.
Pollution is the contamination of the natural environment by the release of
unpleasant and harmful substances into the environment.
Heavy metal ions are persistent, meaning they remain in the environment for
a long time. They also become higher in concentration (bioconcentrate)
moving up food chains and can reach harmful levels in top consumers such as
birds of prey and large fish. Eating large fish, such as sharks, marlin and tuna,
is the major source of ingested mercury in humans.
Disposal of solid waste containing heavy metals
Disposal of solid waste containing heavy metals is a serious problem. This
waste includes:
• Lead-acid batteries from cars, trucks, other vehicles and boats.
• Nickel-cadmium batteries.
• Fluorescent light bulbs which contain mercury vapour.
• Hospital and laboratory thermometers which contain mercury.
These items should not be disposed of in landfills since groundwater and
nearby soil could be contaminated, and they should not be incinerated
because harmful gases containing the metal ions could be released into the
air. The more items containing heavy metals that are recycled, the more the
problem of their disposal will be solved.