INTRODUCTION TO

SOLAR CELLS AND

MODULES

ONKAR KADAM
THE FLOW…

• What is Solar Cells

• What is Solar Module
• Polycrystalline Modules
• Monocrystalline Modules
• Cut Cells and PERC
• Twin Peak and Bifacial Modules
• Typical Module structure
• Best Practices for Module selection
• Module Manufacturing
• International Standards
• Other Points
WHAT IS SOLAR CELLS

• A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is an electrical device

that converts the energy of light directly into electricity
by the photovoltaic effect, which is a physical and
chemical phenomenon.
• The operation of a photovoltaic (PV) cell requires three
basic attributes:
1. The absorption of light, generating either electron-
hole pairs or excitons.
2. The separation of charge carriers of opposite types.
3. The separate extraction of those carriers to an
external circuit.
WHAT IS SOLAR MODULE

• Module Technologies are evolving day by day

with some new ways to enhance the efficiency
as well as power output
• Modules mainly can be divided into two types
namely, Polycrystalline and monocrystalline
• Based on the built they can be divided into single
sided glass our double glass modules
• For the purpose of increasing power modules can
be made using cut cells and PERC technology
• Currently modules which can produce from both
side that is bifacial modules are also being
considered for large power plants due to higher
efficiency
• Currently the module efficiency lies in-between
17 to 21 percent based on technology being
POLYCRYSTALLINE
MODULES

 Polycrystalline solar panels are made from silicon.

However, instead of using a single crystal of silicon,
manufacturers melt many fragments of silicon together
to form the wafers for the panel.
 Because there are many crystals in each cell, there is
less freedom for the electrons to move.
 As a result, polycrystalline solar panels have lower
efficiency ratings than monocrystalline panels.
 These solar panels result in efficiencies in the range of
16 to 17%.
MONOCRYSTALLINE
MODULES
 Monocrystalline solar panels are generally thought of as a
premium solar product. The main advantages of monocrystalline
panels are higher efficiencies and sleeker aesthetics.
 To make solar cells for monocrystalline solar panels, silicon is
formed into bars and cut into wafers. These types of panels are
called “monocrystalline” to indicate that the silicon used is
single-crystal silicon.
 Because the cell is composed of a single crystal, the electrons
that generate a flow of electricity have more room to move
 These type of panels have efficiencies in the range of 18 to 20%
CUT CELLS

 When the area of a solar cell is cut in half, the amount of

electrical current that is carried by each busbar is reduced
by half
 This decrease in electrical resistance within the busbars
results in an overall increase in efficiency, especially during
times of high irradiance, driven by significantly higher
short-circuit current (Isc) and Fill Factor (FF)
 The actual increase in efficiency per manufacturer varies in
the range of 1.5-3% efficiency increase, which is significant
PERC TECHNOLOGY

 It stands for Passivated Emitter and Rear Cell.

 With the current state of the technology, it is possible to
achieve up to 1% absolute gain in efficiency.
 the gain in efficiency enables costs decrease, also at the system
level. We should always keep in mind that the Holy Grail is to
improve efficiency while reducing costs at the same time.
 PERC mainly helps in,
• 1, Cell surface passivation, to reduce light induced carrier
recombination;
• 2, Light trapping process, to reduce reflection;
• 3, Additional doped layer at back, to increase Voc and Isc;
TWIN PEAK
TECHNOLOGY
 TwinPeak is 100% free from potential induced degradation
(PID). This is an important feature in environments experiencing
high temperatures and humidity; such as parts of deserts and
coasts.
 TwinPeak panels provide you with more power output for every
square meter of panels installed
 a unique “twin” design, which enables to generate electricity
even when they are partially shaded.
 By delivering more power per square meter, you need fewer REC
TwinPeak panels to generate the same power. This means
quicker installation times and the need for fewer components
such as clamps and racks. All of which reduces your overall cost.
BIFACIAL MODULES

 The modules which can produce energy from both the

sides using the reflection of solar irradiance
 They boast industry-leading efficiency breakthroughs
while upholding unsurpassed aesthetic standards.
 Frameless bifacial modules showcase some of the highest
power efficiency outputs
 A reflective white Thermoplastic polyolefin roofing
membrane (TPO) reflects light to the backside of the
module to generate up to 20% more electricity
 It on higher side in both performance as well as cost
TYPICAL MODULE
STRUCTURE
DETAILS OF MODULE STRUCTURE
• The Module BOM consist of following key components,

Solar Cells

• Based on the type of module to be manufactured solar cells can be either mono or poly.

• According to efficiency requirements, they can be cut cells or perc

• Solar cells are manufactured in the same unit where modules are manufactured.

• These come in dimensions of 156 mm*156mm

Solar Glass

• Solar glass comes with anti reflective coating

• Mostly 3.2 mm thick low iron tempered glass is used

• Key manufacturers for this glass are Xinyi, Flat glass group and saint gobain

Encapsulants

• Commonly referred to as EVA (Ethylene Vinyl Acetate). These are translucent and become transparent during lamination.

• Play an important role in preventing humidity and dirt penetrating the solar panels

• With the help of a lamination machine, the cells are laminated between films of EVA in a vacuum, which is under compression
DETAILS OF MODULE STRUCTURE

• Continued,

Backsheet

• One of the critical solar panel materials

• The PV back sheet is designed to protect the inner components of the module, specifically the photovoltaic cells and electrical
components from external stresses as well as act as an electrical insulator

• It is typically a three-layer structure where based on cell side material and air side material it is divided in three types namely PET,
PVDF and PVF(Tedlar)

• Backsheet failure may result in terrible failure of the plant and hence it is important to select the material properly. Currently best
technology available is PVDF and PVF while PET is resulting id mass failures

Frame

• Frames are made up of anodized aluminum alloy

• Mostly 35 mm frame width is used but can be 40 mm in some cases

• Key manufacturers for this ackome, yurun and hengmei Jinko

BEST PRACTICES: MODULE SELECTION

• Material Selection

• Module Certification: IEC - 61215, 61730, 61701, 62716, PID

• Factory & Raw material storage facility Inspection

• BOM in accordance with CDF described in IEC 61215

• Project Reference & Global footprint of manufacturer

• Warehouse locations in India: Prompt Service

• During Manufacturing: 1) BOM verification 2) On-line Audit

• Testing of all modules: 1) Visual Inspection 2) 3-stage EL 3) Hi-pot 4) Flash Test

• Batch wise Pre-Shipment Inspection: In accordance with CEA-AQL

• Transportation & Storage

MODULE MANUFACTURING AND TESTING

• Module manufacturing start with various raw materials and their quality checks
• Solar modules are mainly made of solar cells, Encapsulants, Backsheet, glass, junction boxes, cables and
some other secondary items
• Manufacturing plants are mostly semi automatic where cell alignments, EVA and backsheet cutting,
trimming, framing and silicon sealing are automated processes
• Some processes such as placement of busbar, alignments and soldering are done manually
• Module manufacturing starts from cell alignment and stringing of cells.
• These cells are then placed on glass and EVA, after which the soldering and bus bar connection happens
• This process is then followed by placing EVA and backsheet which is then passed through the laminator
• After lamination, Framing and JB fixing is done and modules are ready for testing
• In testing process, modules are visually checked for any physical damage
• After visual inspection, modules are tested with Hi-Pot and flash taste. Flash test determines the power
rating.
• Then EL testing helps to check small cracks which are visually not possible
• Final packaging is done after sorting modules according to power bins.
INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS FOR MODULES

• The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) has defined following standard for solar modules

1. IEC 61215 - Terrestrial photovoltaic (PV) modules - Design qualification and type approval - Part 1: Test requirements
The objective of this test sequence is to determine the electrical and thermal characteristics of the module and to show, as far
as possible within reasonable constraints of cost and time, that the module is capable of withstanding prolonged exposure in
climates described in the scope.

2. IEC 61730 - Photovoltaic (PV) module safety qualification - Part 1: Requirements for construction
This specifies and describes the fundamental construction requirements for photovoltaic (PV) modules in order to provide
safe electrical and mechanical operation. Specific topics are provided to assess the prevention of electrical shock, fire hazards,
and personal injury due to mechanical and environmental stresses.

3. IEC 61701 - Salt mist corrosion testing of photovoltaic (PV) modules

This describes test sequences useful to determine the resistance of different PV modules to corrosion from salt mist containing
Cl- (NaCl, MgCl2, etc.). All tests included in the sequences, except the bypass diode functionality test, are fully described in IEC
61215.
INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS FOR MODULES

1. IEC 62716 - Photovoltaic (PV) modules - Ammonia corrosion testing

This describes test sequences useful to determine the resistance of PV modules to ammonia (NH3). Tests are combined in this
standard to provide means to evaluate possible faults caused in PV modules when operating under wet atmospheres having high
concentration of dissolved ammonia (NH3)

2. IEC 62804 - Photovoltaic (PV) modules - Test methods for the detection of potential-induced degradation - Part 1:
Crystalline silicon
This defines procedures to test and evaluate the durability of crystalline silicon photovoltaic (PV) modules to the effects of short-
term high-voltage stress including potential-induced degradation (PID). Two test methods are defined that do not inherently
produce equivalent results. They are given as screening tests; neither test includes all the factors existing in the natural
environment that can affect the PID rate. The methods describe how to achieve a constant stress level.

3. IEC 60068 - Environmental testing - Part 2: Tests - ALL PARTS

This standard is dedicated to environmental testing that can be used for both modules and inverters. This standard deals with
module performance on very cold conditions, dry heat, simulated solar radiations, vibrations, sand storms and wind loads

• Apart from these standards for Indian market doing BIS certification according to IS 14286 is mandatory. This IS is made
by combining IEC 61215 and IEC 61730.
OTHER IMPORTANT INFORMATION REGARDING
MODULE
1. Warranty certificate
Most module manufacturers give standard product performance warranty of 25 years and standard workmanship
warranty of 10 years. In normal working condition, modules degrade by 2.5% during first year of operation and degrade
by 0.7% per year subsequently till the end of 25 th year.
2. LeTID
LeTID stands for Light and Elevated Temperature Induced Degradation. LeTID is the far more severe (and less
understood) phenomenon of panel degradation. Field testing of PERC solar panels has shown degradation rates in
excess of 8-10% in just three years of field testing. This phenomenon is observed in PERC cells. This is a really big issue
to be considered given the magnitude of degradation is considered. Hence choosing the company who have valid test
report of LeTID eradication is mandatory. Currently Trina, Canadian, Jinko and Longi have valid certificates from IEC.
3. Generation estimates
Generation estimates are based on Pvsyst report which are generated by importing PAN files for modules and OND files
for inverters. Then at given location using the GPS coordinates and irradiation data final generation estimates are
calculated.
THANK YOU….