Oral Communication

in Context
Communication
- a process by which information is
exchanged
between individuals through a
common system
of symbols, signs, or behavior
- the process of conveying a message
from one
medium to another through Verbal,
Nonverbal,
Written, and Visual modes.

- the imparting or exchanging of

- the process of exchanging
information,
ideas, or feelings between
individuals or
groups. It involves a sender, a
message,
and a recipient. This can be
done through
various mediums such as
speaking,
writing, or using other methods
like
Different Types of Communication:
1. Verbal Communication: Using
spoken or written words.
2. Non-Verbal Communication: Using
body language, gestures,
fexpressions, and other visual cues.
3. Written Communication: Through
letters, emails, books, and social
media.
4. Visual Communication: Using
images, graphs, and charts to
convey information
A communication therefore has three
parts: the sender, the message, and the
recipient.
The sender ‘encodes’ the message, usually
in a mixture of words and non-verbal
communication. It is transmitted in some
way (for example, in speech or writing),
and the recipient ‘decodes’ it.
Of course, there may be more than one
recipient, and the complexity of
communication means that each one may
receive a slightly different message. Two
people may read very different things into
the choice of words and/ or body language.
In face-to-face communication, the
roles of the sender and recipient are
not distinct. The two roles will pass
back and forwards between two
people talking. Both parties
communicate with each other, even if
in very subtle ways such as through
eye-contact (or lack of) and general
body language. In written
communication, however, the sender
and recipient are more distinct.
The Communication Process

A message or communication is sent

by the sender through a
communication channel to a receiver,
or to multiple receivers.
The sender must encode the message
(the information being conveyed) into
a form that is appropriate to the
communication channel, and the
receiver(s) then decodes the message
to understand its meaning and
significance.
Misunderstanding can occur at
any stage of the communication
process.
Effective communication
involves minimizing potential
misunderstanding and
overcoming any barriers to
communication at each stage in
the communication process.
An effective communicator understands their
audience, chooses an appropriate
communication channel, hones their message
to this channel and encodes the message to
reduce misunderstanding by the receiver(s).
They will also seek out feedback from the
receiver(s) as to how the message is
understood and attempt to correct any
misunderstanding or confusion as soon as
possible.
Receivers can use techniques such
as Clarification and Reflection as effective
ways to ensure that the message sent has
been understood correctly.
Basic Elements of the
Communication Process
1. The Sender
The communication process begins
with the sender, who is also called
the communicator or source. The
sender has some kind of information
—a command, request, question, or
idea—that he or she wants to
present to others. For that message
to be received, the sender must first
encode the message in a form that
can be understood, such as by the
2. The Receiver
The person to whom a message is
directed is called the receiver or the
interpreter. To comprehend the
information from the sender, the
receiver must first be able to receive
the sender's information and then
decode or interpret it.
3. The Message
The message or content is the
information that the sender wants to
relay to the receiver. Additional
subtext can be conveyed through
body language and tone of voice. Put
all three elements together—the
sender, receiver, and message—and
you have the communication process
at its most basic level.
4. The Medium
Also called the channel, the medium
is the means by which a message is
transmitted. Text messages, for
example, are transmitted through
the medium of cell phones. Other
common mediums of communication
include television broadcasts, radio
waves, internet platforms, and face-
to-face interactions.
5. Feedback
The communication process reaches
its final point when the message has
been successfully transmitted,
received, and understood. The
receiver, in turn, responds to the
sender, indicating comprehension.
Feedback may be direct, such as a
written or verbal response, or it may
take the form of an act or deed in
response (indirect).
Other Factors
The communication process isn't always
so simple or smooth, of course. These
elements can affect how information is
transmitted, received, and interpreted:

1. Noise
This can be any sort of interference that
affects the message being sent,
received, or understood. It can be as
literal as static over a phone line or
radio or as esoteric as misinterpreting a
local custom.
2. Context
This is the setting and situation in
which communication takes place.
Like noise, context can have an
impact on the successful exchange of
information. It may have a physical,
social, or cultural aspect to it. In a
private conversation with a trusted
friend, you would share more
personal information or details about
your weekend or vacation, for
example, than in a conversation with
a work colleague or in a meeting.
8 Major Communication Models
Models of communication provide us
with a visual representation of the
different aspects of a communication
situation.

3 Categories of the Models of

Communication
Linear models of communication —
They only look at one-way
communication. The most prominent
linear models of communication are:
a. Aristotle’s communication model,
b. Lasswell’s communication model,
c. The Shannon-Weaver
communication model,
and
d. Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication
model.

Interactive models of communication

— They analyze two-way
communication. These are the
following:
a. The Osgood-Schramm
communication model,
and
b. The Westley and Maclean
communication
model.
Transactional models of
communication — They illustrate two-
way communication where the
message gets more complex as the
communication event progresses.
These include:
a. Barnlund’s transactional
communication
model, and
b. Dance’s Helical communication
model.
Linear models of communication
The linear communication model is
straightforward and used mainly in marketing,
sales, and PR, in communication with customers.

What is a linear model of communication?

Linear communication models suggest that

communication takes place only in one direction.

The main elements in these models are:

The channel,
The sender, and
The receiver.
Aristotle’s model of communication
Aristotle’s model of communication
primarily focuses on the sender
(public speaker, professor, etc.) who
passes on their message to the
receiver (the audience).

The sender is also the only active

member in this model, whereas the
audience is passive. This makes
Aristotle’s communication model a
foolproof way to excel in public
speaking, seminars, and lectures.
Aristotle identified 3 elements that improve
communication within this model:

Ethos — Defines the credibility of the

speaker. Speaker gains credibility, authority,
and power by being an expert in a field of
their choice.
Pathos — Connects the speaker with the
audience through different emotions (anger,
sadness, happiness, etc.)
Logos — Signifies logic. Namely, it is not
enough for the speech to be interesting — it
needs to follow the rules of logic.
Aristotle’s communication model diagram/ 5
components of a communication situation to
analyze the best way to communicate:
Lasswell’s model of communication

Harold D. Lasswell’s communication

model views communication as the
transmission of a message with the
effect as the result.

The effect in this case is the

measurable and obvious change in
the receiver of the message that is
caused by the elements of
communication.
Lasswell’s model aims to answer the
following 5 questions regarding its
elements:

1. Who created the message?

2. What did they say?
3. What channel did they use (TV,
radio, blog)?
4. To whom did they say it?
5. What effect did it have on the
receiver?
The answers to these questions offer
us the main components of this
model:

1. Communicator,
2. Message,
3. Medium,
4. Audience/ Receiver, and
5. Effect.
Lasswell’s Communication Model
Diagram
The Shannon-Weaver Model of Communication
Maybe the most popular model of
communication is the Shannon-Weaver model.

Strangely enough, Shannon and Weaver were

mathematicians, who developed their work
during the Second World War in the Bell
Telephone Laboratories. They aimed to
discover which channels are most effective for
communicating.

So, although they were doing research as part

of their engineering endeavors, they claimed
that their theory is applicable to human
communication as well.
What is the Shannon-Weaver model
of communication?

The Shannon-Weaver communication

model, therefore, is a mathematical
communication concept that
proposes that communication is a
linear, one-way process that can be
broken down into 5 key concepts.
Main Components of the Shannon-
Weaver Communication Model:

Sender,
Encoder,
Channel,
Decoder, and
Receiver.
Berlo’s S-M-C-R Model of
Communication
- This communication model is unique
in the
sense that it gives a detailed
account of the
key elements in each step.

Simply put, Berlo’s S-M-C-R

communication model is a linear
model of communication that
suggests communication is the
Main Elements of Berlo’s Berlo’s S-M-
C-R Communication Model:

1. Source,
2. Message,
3. Channel, and
4. Receiver.
 Key elements that affect how well the
message is communicated:
Step #1: The source
The source or the sender carefully puts
their thoughts into words and transfers
the message to the receiver.

Communication skills — First and

foremost, the source needs good
communication skills to ensure the
communication will be effective. The
speaker should know when to pause, what
to repeat, how to pronounce a word, etc.
Attitude — Secondly, the source needs
the right attitude. Without it, not even a
great speaker would ever emerge as a
winner. The source needs to make a
lasting impression on the receiver(s).
Knowledge — Here, knowledge does not
refer to educational qualifications but to
the clarity of the information that the
source wants to transfer to the receiver.
Social system — The source should be
familiar with the social system in which
the communication process takes place.
That would help the source not to offend
anyone.
Culture — Last but not least, to achieve
effective communication, the source
needs to be acquainted with the culture
in which the communication encounter is
taking place. This is especially important
for cross-cultural communication.

Step #2: The message

The speaker creates the message when
they transform their thoughts into words.

Here are the key factors of the message:

Content — Simply put, this is the
script of the conversation.
Elements — Speech alone is not
enough for the message to be fully
understood. That is why other
elements have to be taken into
account: gestures, body language,
facial expressions, etc.
Treatment — The way the source
treats the message. They have to be
aware of the importance of the
message so that they can convey it
appropriately.
Structure — The source has to properly
structure the message to ensure the receiver
will understand it correctly.
Code — All the elements, verbal and
nonverbal, need to be accurate if you do not
want your message to get distorted and
misinterpreted.

Step #3: The channel

To get from the source to the receiver, the
message goes through the channel.

Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model

identifies all our senses are the channels that
help us communicate with one another.
Our sense of hearing lets us know that
someone is speaking to us.

Through our sense of taste, we gather

information about the spiciness of a sauce we
are eating.

Our sense of sight allows us to decipher traffic

signs while driving.

We decide whether we like a certain perfume or

not by smelling it.

By touching the water we feel whether it is too

cold for a swim.
Step #4: The receiver
A receiver is a person the source is
speaking to — the destination of the
conveyed message.

To understand the message, the

receiver should involve the same
elements as the source. They should
have similar communication skills,
attitudes, and knowledge, and be
acquainted with the social system
and culture in which they
communicate.
Interactive models of communication

Interactive models are used in internet-based

and mediated communication such as
telephone conversations, letters, etc.

What is an interactive model of

communication?

As more dynamic models, interactive

communication models refer to two-way
communication with feedback.

However, feedback within interactive

communication models is not simultaneous,
Main Elements of Interactive
Communication Models:

1. Sender,
2. Message,
3. Receiver,
4. Feedback, and
5. Field of experience.
The Osgood-Schramm model of
communication

The Osgood-Schramm model is a

circular model of communication, in
which messages go in two directions
between encoding and decoding.

As such, this model is useful for

describing synchronous, interpersonal
communication, but less suitable for
cases with little or no feedback.
Interestingly, in the Osgood-
Schramm communication model,
there is no difference between a
sender and a receiver. Both parties
are equally encoding and decoding
the messages. The interpreter is the
person trying to understand the
message at that moment.
The Osgood-Schramm communication
model proposes 4 main principles of
communication:

1. Communication is circular. —
Individuals involved in the
communication process are changing
their roles as encoders and decoders.

2. Communication is equal and

reciprocal. — Both parties are equally
engaged as encoders and decoders.
3. The message requires
interpretation. — The information
needs to be properly interpreted to
be understood.
4. As shown in the Osgood-Schramm
communication model diagram
below, this model proposes 3 steps
in the process of communication:

Encoding,
Decoding, and
Interpreting.
The Westley and Maclean Model of
Communication
- This communication model is primarily used
for explaining mass communication.

The Westley and Maclean communication

model suggests that the communication
process does not start with the source/sender,
but rather with environmental factors.

This model also takes into account the object

of the orientation (background, culture, and
beliefs) of the sender and the receiver of
messages.
The very process of communication,
according to this communication
model, starts with environmental
factors that influence the speaker —
the culture or society the speaker
lives in, whether the speaker is in a
public or private space, etc.
9 Crucial Components of the Westley and
Maclean Communication Model:

1. Environment (X),
2. Sensory experience (X¹),
3. Source/Sender (A),
4. The object of the orientation of the source
(X²),
5. Receiver (B),
6. The object of the orientation of the
receiver (X³),
7. Feedback (F),
8. Gatekeepers (C), and
9. Opinion leaders.
Westley and Maclean Communication
Model Diagram
Transactional communication models
Transactional models are the most dynamic
communication models, which first introduce a
new term for senders and receivers —
communicators.

What is a transactional communication model?

Transactional communication models view

communication as a transaction, meaning that
it is a cooperative process in which
communicators co-create the process of
communication, thereby influencing its
outcome and effectiveness.
In other words, communicators
create shared meaning in a dynamic
process.

Aside from that, transactional

models show that we do not just
exchange information during our
interactions, but create
relationships, form cross-cultural
bonds, and shape our opinions.

In other words, communication helps

us establish our realities.
Key Components of Transactional
Communication Model:

Encoding,
Decoding,
Communicators,
The message,
The channel, and
Noise.
Transactional Communication Model
Diagram
Barnlund’s transactional model of
communication

Barnlund’s transactional communication model

explores interpersonal, immediate-feedback
communication.

What is Barnlund’s transactional

communication model?

Barnlund’s model of communication recognizes

that communication is a circular process and a
multi-layered feedback system between the
sender and the receiver, both of whom can
affect the message being sent.
The sender and the receiver change
their places and are equally
important. Feedback from the sender
is the reply for the receiver, and both
communicators provide feedback.

At the same time, both sender and

receiver are responsible for the
communication’s effect and
effectiveness.
Main Components of Barnlund’s
Transactional Communication Model:

Encoding,
Decoding,
Communicators,
The message (including the cues,
environment, and noise), and
The channel.
Examples of Barnlund’s Model of
communication include:

Face-to-face interactions,
Chat sessions,
Telephone conversations,
Meetings, etc.
Dance’s Helical model of
communication

According to Dance’s Helical model

of communication, with every cycle
of communication, we expand our
circle.

Therefore, each communication

encounter is different from the
previous one because communication
never repeats itself.
What is Dance’s Helical
communication model?

Dance’s Helical communication

model views communication as a
circular process that gets more and
more complex as communication
progresses.
Dance’s Helical Communication Model
Diagram
According to this communication
model, in the communication
process, the feedback we get from
the other party involved influences
our next statement and we become
more knowledgeable with every new
cycle.

“Interpersonal communication is
irreversible. Like the spiral shown
here, communication never loops
back on itself. Once it begins, it
expands infinitely as the
Common Barriers to Effective
Communication
1. Interpersonal Barriers
Interpersonal barriers are behavioural patterns
that make it difficult for you to communicate
effectively or for others to communicate with you.

This might be the result of intentional behaviour

on the part of the person, such as purposefully
turning off their phone or shutting their door
when they don’t want to talk to anyone. However,
it is frequently more likely that they are acting
inadvertently. For instance, our body language
can convey how we feel about someone or
something. The other person notices this and
responds in kind as a result.

Given that there may be numerous factors, it

might be difficult to pinpoint these
2. Gender Barriers
Gender communication obstacles are among the
subtlest to spot yet can nonetheless occasionally
cause problems. They frequently appear when
someone has an exaggerated or stereotypical
notion of how a particular gender behaves. They
might then behave in a way that prevents them
from communicating with others in an
appropriate, honest, and open manner.

Cultural barriers, particularly those caused by

variations in nationality and age group, are
intimately related to gender barriers. Remember
that as we work to create a fairer society, not
everyone will be able to move with the times or
adapt to the ideals of a different culture.
3. Perceptual Barriers
People have mental barriers to
communication because of the way
they view the world. They may be
brought on by the numerous
cognitive biases that plague human
perception of individuals and events.
A person’s particular prejudices may
also be influenced by their past
experiences and the opinions of
others.
4. Physical Barriers
Physical barriers are a result of
disturbances in our surroundings
which leads to ineffective
communication. Its examples include
inadequate equipment such as
outdated computers, Internet
connectivity, background noise, poor
lighting, fluctuating temperatures,
etc. Climate, distance, and the time
gap between the sender and
receiver are the major causes of
concern when it comes to the
5. Psychological Barriers
Sometimes, strong emotions like
anger or sadness, nervousness,
personal grudges, etc can affect our
mental well-being, thus, making
communication less than effective.
Such inner-faring emotions are
known as emotional noise or
Psychological Barriers and it is one
of the powerful barriers to
communication.
6. Semantic or Language Barriers
As the name suggests, one of the
main barriers is Semantic barriers in
communication. You may find it a
minor obstacle, but people who
speak the same language can have
difficulty understanding each other.
Furthermore, this gap widens with a
change in the region, country, and
generations. The professional jargon
and regional colloquialisms can pinch
communicators with even the best
intentions.
7. Physiological Barriers
When the physical condition of either
the receiver or the sender is not well,
it leads to a barrier in
communication. Ill health, poor
eyesight, hearing difficulties, etc are
some examples of physiological
obstacles to effective
communication.
8. Cultural Noise
People often fall into assumptions
based on their peer’s cultural
backgrounds and the associated
stereotypes, and this hampers
effective communication. Examples
of cultural noise include non-verbal
cues, knowledge, language,
behaviors, customs, etc. For
example, if you intend to
communicate with a person from
Saudi Arabia, having less knowledge
about their cultural and political
9. Problems with Structural Design
Companies or institutions can have
unclear organizational structures
making communication difficult. For
instance, if the roles and
responsibilities of a newly recruited
employee are not specified to both,
he and his colleagues, discrepancies
can arise in communicating
effectively. Poor communication
systems, lack of supervision, and
employee training can be considered
an obstruction to effective
10. Lack of Common Experience
Among others, the lack of common
experience is one of the most
observed barriers to communication.
While it is a great idea to use
examples or stories to explain or
enhance a point, however, if one is
unable to relate to these examples
because of a lack of knowledge or
shared experiences, then this
process will be completely
ineffective.
11. Ambiguity while Communicating
The unnecessary usage of jargon,
proverbs, difficult vocabulary or
technical terms can often lead to
ambiguity and unclear transmission
of information. This can eventually
lead to misinterpretation. For
instance, an article on “Causes of
Inflation” in the newspaper may be
useful to some, but others might get
confused with the technical terms
used.
12. Information Overload
Among others, information overload
is one of the common communication
barriers. Be it from online sources or
that from offline resources, it takes
time to process large quantities of
information. Further, too many
details can overwhelm as well as
distract the reader from forming a
basic understanding.
13. Poor Listening Skills
This is equally one of the most
common communication barriers.
Often, people don’t listen to a
conversation fully and end up
making an assumption. This can also
be due to Physical barriers or
differences in opinions.
14. Physical Barriers
The objects present around us in the
environment or the conditions that are
ongoing around us act as physical barriers
to communication. These may be
technological or naturally occurring events
that hamper the message. The most
common examples of physical barriers
would be Doors, Walls, Windows, Glass
Walls, etc. You might have experienced
that while conveying a message from a
room when the door is locked, it is difficult
for the receiver to understand what is said
because the door is a barrier.
15. Environment
You will come across plenty of
barriers present in the environment.
It is often difficult to overcome such
barriers to have fluent
communication. For example, during
heavy rainfall, if you are present on
the streets it would be difficult for
you to either convey or understand
the message that is conveyed by a
person present on the other side of
the street.
16. Ignorance of Medium
Often people use signs or symbols
to communicate or convey a
particular message. Communications
of this type are often hampered due
to ignorance. If the other person
lacks knowledge of the medium that
is used to send the message, then,
there are chances that the receiver
is not able to fully understand the
message.
17. Distance
Distance is one of the most common
barriers of communication but it can
be resolved in the simplest ways.
You might have come across that the
employees of a particular team or
project in the organization are often
made to sit together so that they can
communicate effectively.