Table of contents:

1. Introduction
2. Data flow between CPU, memory, and I/O devices
3. Central Processing Unit
4. Arithmetic Logic unit
5. Communication inside a computer.
6. Interconnection Of Units
7. System bus types
8. Processing of information
9. Memory and types
10. Input and output devices
11. Conclusion
Introduction:

In computer science and engineering computer architecture is

the practical art of selecting and interconnecting hardware
components to create computers that meet functional,
performance, and cost goals and the formal modeling of those
systems.

The functional blocks in a computer are of four types:

1. Central Processing Unit

2. Memory

3. Input Unit and Output unit

 Data flow between CPU,
memory, and i/o devices
Data Path
Auxilliary Storage Control Signals
(Backing Storage)
To Supplement main
storage

Memory
Output
Input
Unit
Unit

Control Unit ALU

Registers

Processor
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The CPU or the microprocessor (or simply processor) is
referred as the brain of a computer system.

CPU consists of three main subsystems, the Control Unit (CU),

the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), and the Registers.

Speed of the computer system is defined by the architecture

of the processor being used.
 Arithmetic Logic unit
The ALU contains electronic circuits necessary to perform arithmetic
and logical operations.

The arithmetic operations are ADD, SUBSTRACT, MULTIPLY, DIVIDE, etc.

The logical operations include COMPARE, SHIFT, ROTATE, AND, OR, etc

The control unit analyses each instruction in the program and sends
the relevant signals to all other units – ALU, Memory, Input unit and
Output unit
Communication inside a computer
 Communication inside a
computer.
A computer program consists of both instructions and data.
The program is fed into the computer through the input unit
and stored in the memory.

In order to execute the program, the instructions have to be

fetched from memory one by one.

This fetching of instructions is done by the control unit.

After an instruction is fetched, the control unit decodes the

instruction.
 Communication inside a computer.

After an instruction is executed, the result of the instruction is

stored in memory or stored temporarily in the control unit or
ALU, so that this can be used by the next instruction.

The results of a program are taken out of the computer

through the output unit.

The control unit, ALU and registers are collectively known as

Central Processing Unit (CPU)
 Interconnection Of Units

A computer program consists of both instructions and data.

The program is fed into the computer through the input unit
and stored in the memory.

In order to execute the program, the instructions have to be

fetched from memory one by one and store it into registers
(working memory) for processing.

This fetching of instructions is done by the control unit.

 Instruction Cycle

Instruction are fetched

and executed by the
control unit one by one.
The sequences involved
for the fetch of one
instruction and its
execution are known as
instruction cycle.
 Inter-connections of units.

Set of wires used for interconnection is known as system bus

which carry group of bits (information) in a controlled manner.

It is further divided into three logical units, namely the address
bus, the data bus, and the control bus.
 System Buses Types
• Data Bus: The data bus is used when any unit is sending data,
instruction or command code to some other units.

• Address Bus: The address bus is used when one unit is sending
address information i.e. location of the data residing in the memory
to another unit.

• Control Bus: The control bus is responsible for making CPU,

memory, and I/O devices work together as a functional system,
carrying signals that report the status (ready, not ready) of various
units.
 Interconnection of Computers Units
via System Bus

Input and
Memory
CPU Output(I/O)
Unit
Units

Data Bus
Address Bus
Control Bus

System
Bus
Interconnection of Computers Units via Bus

Shows how the system bus interconnects the processor,

memory and I/O devices.

Both processor and memory units hold a bi-directional

relationship with the control and data bus.
 Processing of Information
The bus is common to all the units in the computer. Before sending
some information on the bus, an unit should verify whether the bus is
free or occupied with some communication started by some other
unit.

CPU is the bus master in a computer that decides who should control
the bus when more than one unit wants the bus at the same time.

 A unit that needs the bus makes a request to the CPU and waits for
sanction. Till the CPU issues a sanction, the requesting unit does not
attempt to use the bus.
 Registers
It is a special temporary storage location within the CPU.

Registers quickly accept, store and transfer data and

instructions that are being used immediately.

To execute an instruction, the control unit of the CPU retrieves

it from main memory and places it onto a register.

The typical operations that take place in the processing of

instruction are part of the instruction cycle or execution cycle.

The instruction cycle refers to the retrieval of the instruction

from main memory and its sub sequence at decoding.
Control Unit
It is responsible for directing and coordinating most of the
computer system activities.
It does not execute instructions by itself. It tells other parts of
the computer system what to do.
It determines the movement of electronic signals between the
main memory and arithmetic logic unit as well as the control
signals between the CPU and input/output devices.
Memory

Memory is the computer's electronic scratchpad or local store

in computer terminology.
Used for temporary storage of calculations, data, and other
work in progress.
Two types: Primary and Secondary
Primary memory or the main memory is part of the main
computer system. The primary memory itself is of two types.
The first is called random access memory (RAM) and the other
is read only memory (ROM).
 Random Access Memory (RAM)

The processor directly stores and retrieves information from it.

Memory is organized into locations. Each memory location is

identified by a unique address. The access time is the same for all
locations.

It is volatile: when turned off, everything in RAM disappears.

Two types:

1. Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM):

2. Static Random Access Memory (SRAM):

Types of RAM
1. Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM):

 This type of RAM retain the content of any location only for a
few milliseconds. Within that period, each location must be
written again with the same contents. This is known as
refreshing.

2. Static Random Access Memory (SRAM):

 This type of RAM preserves the contents of all the locations as

long as the power supply is present. SRAM is generally included
in a computer system by the name of cache.
 Read Only Memory (ROM)
Data stored in ROM cannot be modified, or can be modified
only slowly or with difficulty, so it is mainly used to distribute.

The instructions in ROM are built into the electronic circuits of

the chip which is called firmware.

Random access in nature and non-volatile.

Types of ROM
• Programmable read-only memory (PROM), or one-time programmable
ROM can be written to or programmed via a special device called a
PROM programmer.

• Erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM) can be erased by

exposure to strong ultraviolet light then rewritten with a process that
again needs higher than usual voltage applied.

• Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM) is

based on a similar semiconductor structure to EPROM, but allows its
entire contents (or selected banks) to be electrically erased, then
rewritten electrically, so that they need not be removed from the
computer
Flash
Memory

Modern type of EEPROM invented in 1984.

Random access memories and are non-volatile.

Use one transistor per memory cell and come in capacities

ranging from 1 MB to 32 GB by the year 2007.

The read time is much smaller (tens of nanoseconds)

compared write time (tens of microseconds).
Cache
Memory
Cache
Memory
High speed memory kept in between processor and RAM to
increase the data execution speed.

Kept near to the processor.

Major reason for incorporating cache in the system is that the

CPU is much faster than the DRAM and needs a place to store
information that can be accessed quickly.

Cache fetches the frequently used data from the DRAM and
buffers (stores) it for further processor usage.
Input and
Output Devices

INPUT DEVICES OUTPUT DEVICES

• Any peripheral used to Any piece of computer

provide data and control hardware equipment used to
signals to an information communicate the results of
processing system such as a processed data to the user.
computer or other information
Examples: Monitors, Printers,
appliance.
Speakers, etc.
• Examples: Keyboard, Mouse
Conclusion

• Computer organization and architecture is defined as the science of

selecting and interconnecting hardware components to create
computers that meet functional, performance and cost goals.

• The central processing unit is the brain of the computer system

where all the computing is done. It consists of three main
components, the control unit (CU), the arithmetic logic unit (ALU)
and the registers.

• The control unit controls the Input/Output devices and transfer of

data to and from the primary storage.