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Grabowski CH 6 Slide Deck

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Grabowski CH 6 Slide Deck

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dhudson28
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Biology

Mr Grabowski

Chapter 6
Metabolism:
Energy and
Enzymes
Lecture Outline

1
Outline
• 6.1 Cells and the Flow of Energy

• 6.2 Metabolic Reactions and Energy


Transformations

• 6.3 Metabolic Pathways and Enzymes

• 6.4 Organelles and the Flow of Energy

2
6.1 Cells and the Flow of
Energy
• Energy – The ability to do work or bring
about a change
 Kinetic energy
• Energy of motion
• Mechanical

 Potential energy
• Stored energy
• Chemical energy

3
• What is energy?
 Ability to do work or ability to bring about change.

4
Flow of Energy

solar

energy

heat

heat

heat

heat

Chemical

energy

Mechanical energy

5
Two Laws of
Thermodynamics
• First law:
 Law of conservation of energy
 Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but can be
changed from one form to another
• Second law:
 Law of entropy
 When energy is changed from one form to another,
there is a loss of usable energy
 Waste energy goes to increase disorder

6
The law of conservation of energy says that
energy is neither created nor destroyed.
When people use energy, it doesn't
disappear. Energy changes from one form
of energy into another form of energy.

7
2nd Law = Law of Entropy

S S

8
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

heat
CO2

sun

H2O
carbohydrate

solar energy producer


Carbohydrate Metabolism

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

heat

carbohydrate uncontracted muscle contracted muscle

10
Cells and Entropy Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

H2O

C6H12O6
CO2

Glucose Carbon dioxide

and water

• more organized • less organized


kinetic
• more potential energy • less potential energy
energy
• less stable (entropy) • more stable (entropy)
a.

+ +
H H +
channel protein + H
H
+ +
H H

+ +
+ H + H
H H
+ +
+ H + H
H + H +
H + H +
H H

Unequal distribution Equal distribution

of hydrogen ions of hydrogen ions


• more organized • less organized
• more potential energy • less potential energy
• less stable (entropy) 11
• more stable (entropy)
b.
6.2 Metabolic Reactions and Energy
Transformations

• Metabolism
 Sum of cellular chemical reactions in cell
 Reactants participate in a reaction
 Products form as result of a reaction
• Free energy is the amount of energy available
to perform work
 Exergonic Reactions - Products have less free
energy than reactants (release energy)
 Endergonic Reactions - Products have more free
energy than reactants (require energy input)

12
ATP and Coupled Reactions
• Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
 High energy compound used to drive metabolic
reactions
 Constantly being generated from adenosine
diphosphate (ADP)
• Composed of:
 Adenine and ribose (together = adenosine), and
 Three phosphate groups
• Coupled reactions
 Energy released by an exergonic reaction
captured in ATP
 That ATP used to drive an endergonic reaction
13
The ATP Cycle
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

adenosine triphosphate

ATP is unstable and has

a high potential energy.

P P P

ATP

14
The ATP Cycle
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

adenosine triphosphate

ATP is unstable and has

a high potential energy.

P P P

ATP

ATP + P

Exergonic Reaction:

• The hydrolysis of ATP releases

previously stored energy, allowing

the change in free energy to do

work and drive other processes.


• Has negative delta G.

• Examples: protein synthesis, nerve


15
conduction, muscle contraction
The ATP Cycle
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

adenosine triphosphate

ATP is unstable and has

a high potential energy.

P P P

ATP

ADP + P

Exergonic Reaction:

• The hydrolysis of ATP releases

Previously stored energy, allowing

the change in free energy to do

work and drive other processes.


• Has negative delta G.

• Examples: protein synthesis, nerve

conduction, muscle contraction

P P + P

adenosine diphosphate + phosphate 16


ADP is more stable and has lower potential energy than ATP.
The ATP Cycle Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

adenosine triphosphate

ATP is unstable and has

a high potential energy.

P P P

Endergonic Reaction:

• Creation of ATP from

ADP and Prequires

input of energy from

Other sources. ATP

• Has positive delta G.

• Example: cellular

respiration

ADP + P

Exergonic Reaction:

• The hydrolysis of ATP releases

Previously stored energy, allowing

the change in free energy to do

work and drive other processes.

• Has negative delta G.

• Examples: protein synthesis, nerve

conduction, muscle contraction

P P + P

adenosine diphosphate + phosphate 17


ADP is more stable and has lower potential energy than ATP.
Coupled Reactions
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

1 Myosin assumes its

resting shape when

It combines with ATP.

actin

myosin ATP

18
Coupled Reactions
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

1 Myosin assumes its 2 ATP splits into ADP

resting shape when and p , causing

It combines with ATP. myosin to change its

shape and allowing it

to attach to actin.

actin

P
myosin ATP ADP

19
Coupled Reactions Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

1 Myosin assumes its 2 ATP splits into ADP 3 Release of ADP and

resting shape when and p , causing p cause myosin to

It combines with ATP. myosin to change its again change shape

shape and allowing it and pull again

to attach to actin. stactin, generating

force and motion.

actin

P ADP
ATP
myosin

20
Coupled Reactions
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

1 Myosin assumes its 2 ATP splits into ADP 3 Release of ADP and

resting shape when and p , causing p cause myosin to

It combines with ATP. myosin to change its again change shape

shape and allowing it and pull against actin,

to attach to actin. generating force and

motion.

actin

P
ATP ADP
myosin

21
Work-Related Functions of
ATP
• Primarily to perform cellular work
 Chemical Work - Energy needed to
synthesize macromolecules

 Transport Work - Energy needed to pump


substances across plasma membrane

 Mechanical Work - Energy needed to


contract muscles, beat flagella, etc

22
Metabolic Pathways
• Reactions are usually occur in a sequence
 Products of an earlier reaction become reactants of a
later reaction
 Such linked reactions form a metabolic pathway
• Begins with a particular reactant,
• Proceeds through several intermediates, and
• Terminates with a particular end product

AB C D E FG

“A” is Initial B, C, D, E, and F “G” is End


Reactant are Intermediates Product
23
Enzymes
• Enzymes
 Protein molecules that function as catalysts
 The reactants of an enzymatically accelerated
reaction are called substrates
 Each enzyme accelerates a specific reaction
 Each reaction in a metabolic pathway requires a
unique and specific enzyme
 End product will not appear unless ALL enzymes
present and functional
E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 E6

A  B  C  D  E  F  G
24
Animation

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animations will not appear until the presentation is viewed in

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the “Normal” or “Slide Sorter” views. All animations will appear after

viewing in Presentation Mode and playing each animation. Most

animations will require the latest version of the Flash Player, which

is available at http://get.adobe.com/flashplayer.
6.3 Metabolic Pathways and
Enzymes
• Reactions usually occur in a sequence
 Products of an earlier reaction become reactants of a
later reaction
 Such linked reactions form a metabolic pathway
• Begins with a particular reactant, proceeds through several
intermediates, and terminates with a particular end product

AB C D E FG

“A” is Initial B, C, D, E, and F “G” is End


Reactant are Intermediates Product

26
6.3 Metabolic Pathways and
Enzymes
• Enzyme
 Protein molecules that function as catalysts
 The reactants of an enzymatically catalyzed reaction
are called substrates
 Each enzyme accelerates a specific reaction
 Each reaction in a metabolic pathway requires a
unique and specific enzyme
 The end product will not be formed unless ALL
enzymes in the pathway are present and functional

E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 E6

A  B  C  D  E  F  G
27
Animation

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animations will not appear until the presentation is viewed in

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animations will require the latest version of the Flash Player, which

is available at http://get.adobe.com/flashplayer.

28
Energy of Activation
• Molecules frequently do not react with one
another unless they are activated in some way
 Energy must be added to at least one reactant to
initiate the reaction
• Energy of activation

• Enzyme Operation:
 Enzymes operate by lowering the energy of
activation
 Accomplished by bringing substrates into contact with
one another
29
Energy of Activation
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

energy of

activation

(Ea)

energy of
energy of
reactant
activation

(Ea)
Free Energy

energy of

product

enzyme not present

enzyme present

Progress of the Reaction

30
Animation

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31
Enzyme-Substrate Complex
• The active site complexes with the
substrates
 Causes the active site to change shape

 Shape change forces substrates together,


initiating bond

 Induced fit model


• Enzyme is induced to undergo a slight alteration to
achieve optimum fit for the substrates
32
Enzyme-Substrate Complex
• Degradation:
 Enzyme complexes with a single substrate molecule
 Substrate is broken apart into two product molecules

• Synthesis:
 Enzyme complexes with two substrate molecules
 Substrates are joined together and released as a
single product molecule

33
Enzymatic Actions
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

products

enzyme

substrate
enzyme-substrate

complex

active site
Degradation

The substrate is broken down

to smaller products.
a. enzyme

product

enzyme

substrates
enzyme-substrate

complex

active site

Synthesis

The substrates are combined

to produce a larger product.


b. enzyme

34
Factors Affecting Enzymatic
Speed
• Substrate concentration
 Enzyme activity increases with substrate
concentration due to more frequent collisions between
substrate molecules and the enzyme
• Temperature
 Enzyme activity increases with temperature
 Warmer temperatures cause more effective collisions
between enzyme and substrate
 However, hot temperatures can denature and destroy
enzymes
• pH
 Most enzymes are optimized for a particular pH
35
The Effect of Temperature on Rate of
Reaction

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
(product per unit of time)
Rate of Reaction

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Temperature C

a. Rate of reaction as a function of b. Body temperature of ectothermic animals c. Body temperature of endothermic animals

temperature often limits rates of reactions. promotes rates of reactions.

b: © James Watt/Visuals Unlimited; c: © Creatas/PunchStock

36
The Effect of pH on Rate of Reaction

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

pepsin trypsin
(product per unit of time)
Rate of Reaction

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 1 12

pH

37
Factors Affecting Enzymatic
Speed
• Cells can regulate the presence/absence of an
enzyme
• Cells can regulate the concentration of an
enzyme
• Cells can activate or deactivate some enzymes
 Enzyme Cofactors
• Molecules required to activate enzyme
• Coenzymes are nonprotein organic molecules
• Vitamins are small organic compounds required in the diet
for the synthesis of coenzymes

38
Cofactors at Active Site
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

cofactor

active

site

39
a.
Cofactors at Active Site
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

substrate

40
b.
Cofactors at Active Site
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

cofactor

active

site substrate

a. b.

41
Animation

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animations will not appear until the presentation is viewed in

Presentation Mode (Slide Show view). You may see blank slides in

the “Normal” or “Slide Sorter” views. All animations will appear after

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animations will require the latest version of the Flash Player, which

is available at http://get.adobe.com/flashplayer.

42
Enzyme Inhibition
• Reversible enzyme inhibition
 A substance known as an inhibitor binds to an
enzyme and decreases its activity
• Competitive inhibition – the substrate and the
inhibitor are both able to bind to active site
• Noncompetitive inhibition – the inhibitor does not
bind at the active site, but at an allosteric site

43
Noncompetitive Inhibition of an Enzyme

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

A E allosteric site
1

E E E E E
enzymes 1 2 3 4 5 F

substrates A B C D E (end

product)

1 Metabolic pathway produces F, the end product.

active site (end


E
1
product)

2 F binds to allosteric site and the active site of E1 changes shape.

A E (end
1
product)

3 A cannot bind to E1; the enzyme has been inhibited by F.

44
Animation

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45
Enzyme Inhibitors Can Spell
Death
• Materials that irreversibly inhibit an enzyme are
known as poisons
• Cyanide inhibits enzymes required for ATP
production
• Sarin inhibits an enzyme located at the
neuromuscular junction.
• Warfarin inhibits an enzyme responsible for the
blood clotting process

46
6.4 Organelles and the Flow
of Energy
• Oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions
 Electrons pass from one molecule to another
• Oxidation - loss of an electron

• Reduction – gain of an electron

 Both take place at same time

 One molecule accepts the electron given up by


the other

47
Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration

48
Animation

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Electron Transport Chain
• Consists of membrane-bound carrier proteins
found in mitochondria and chloroplasts
• Physically arranged in an ordered series
 Starts with high-energy electrons
 Pass electrons from one carrier to another
• Electron energy used to pump hydrogen ions (H +) to one side
of membrane
• Establishes an electrochemical gradient across the
membrane
• The electrochemical gradient is used to make ATP from ADP
– Chemiosmosis
 Ends with low-energy electrons and high-energy ATP

50
ElectronTransport Chain Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.


e

high-energy

electrons

High-energy electrons
energy for
are unstable and have ATP
Synthesis of
high potential energy.

This energy is released

in stages, as kinetic

energy, during the

electron transport chain.

electron

transport chain

As energy is released,
low-energy
the electrons become -
e
electrons
more stable and have
51
less potential energy.
Animation

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animations will not appear until the presentation is viewed in

Presentation Mode (Slide Show view). You may see blank slides in

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animations will require the latest version of the Flash Player, which

is available at http://get.adobe.com/flashplayer.
Chemiosmosis
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

+
High H concentration

+
H pump in electron

transport chain

ATP

synthase
+
NADH NAD + H complex
+
+ H
Low H concentration

53
Chemiosmosis
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

+
High H concentration
+
H
+
H pump in electron +
+ H
transport chain H

ATP

synthase
+
NADH NAD + H complex
+
+ H
Low H concentration

54
Chemiosmosis
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

+
High H concentration
+
H
+
H pump in electron +
+ H
transport chain H

ATP

synthase
+
NADH NAD + H complex
+
+ H
Low H concentration

55
Chemiosmosis
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

+
High H concentration
+ +
H H
+
H pump in electron +
+ H
transport chain H

+
H

ATP

ADP + P
ATP

ADP + P synthase
+
NADH NAD + H complex
ATP
+
+ H
Low H concentration

56

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