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Chapter 1 Classical Euclidean Geometry

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Chapter 1 Classical Euclidean Geometry

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annjerniel2
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© © All Rights Reserved
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CHAPTER 1

CLASSICAL EUCLIDEAN
GEOMETRY
1. THE ORIGINS OF GEOMETRY

2. 2. UNDEFINED TERMS

3. 3. EUCLID'S FIRST FOUR POSTULATES

4. 4. THE PARALLEL POSTULATE

5. 5. ATTEMPTS TO PROVE THE PARALLEL POSTULATE


THE ORIGIN OF GEOMETRY

Geometry comes from the Greek word


Geometrien
“geo” means “earth”
“metrien” means “to measure”
THE ORIGIN OF GEOMETRY

Ancient geometry was actually a collection of rule-of-


thumb procedures arrived at through experimentation,
observation of analogies, guessing, and occasional
flashes of intuition.
In short, it was an empirical subject in which
approximate answers were usually sufficient for
practical purposes
THE ORIGIN OF GEOMETRY

While the ancient Greeks were the first to organize


the study of geometric topics into a formal system of
thought, mankind's interest in geometry predates the
Greeks by many centuries. Many scholars believe that
mathematics originated in the Orient (that is, in
countries east of Greece) as an aid to business,
agriculture, architecture, and engineering.
GEOMETRY THROUGH THE AGES

SUMERIAN (2100 BC)


• Clay Tablets
GEOMETRY THROUGH THE AGES

BABYLONIAN (1600 BC)


• mathematical tables for computing products, reciprocals, squares, square roots, and
other mathematical functions useful in financial calculations
• areas of rectangles, right and isosceles triangles, trapezoids, and circles
• responsible for dividing the circumference of a circle into 360 equal parts
• used the Pythagorean Theorem (long before Pythagoras),
• performed calculations involving ratio and proportion, and
• studied the relationships between the elements of various triangles
• considered the circumference of a circle to be three times the diameter
GEOMETRY THROUGH THE AGES

EGYPTIAN (1800 BC)


• Great Pyramid at Giza illustrates the precision they were capable of
achieving.
• computed the area of the circle as the square of 8/9 the diameter
• They also used the Pythagorean Theorem and computed the volumes
and dihedral angles of pyramids and cylinders.
• approximation Π~ ~ 3.1604
• They found the correct formula for the volume of a frustum of a square pyramid
GEOMETRY THROUGH THE AGES

GREEK
• Thales of Miletus (640 BC)

• Pythagoras (569 - 475 BC)


• Hippocrates of Chios (470 - 410 BC)
• Plato (427 - 347 BC)
• Eudoxus ( 408 - 355 BC)
• Euclid (330 - 270 BC)
THALES OF MILETUS (640 BC)

• The "father" of demonstrative mathematics.


• The Greeks, beginning with Thales of Miletus, insisted that geometric statements be
established by deductive reasoning rather than by trial and error
• Thales was credited with demonstrating the following theorems:
• A circle is bisected by any diameter.
• The base angles of an isosceles triangle are equal.
• The angles between two intersecting straight lines are equal.
• Two triangles are congruent if they have two angles and one side equal.
• An angle in a semicircle is a right angle.
PYTHAGORAS (569 - 475 BC)

• Pythagoras was regarded by his contemporaries as a religious prophet.


• In music, Pythagoras calculated the correct ratios ofthe harmonic intervals.
• In mathematics, he taught the mysterious and wonderful properties of numbers.
• The sum of the angles of a triangle is equal to two right angles
• For a right triangle, the square on the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares
on the other two sides.
• The Pythagoreans were greatly shocked when they discovered irrational lengths,
such as
• Geometric solutions to quadratic equations
HIPPOCRATES OF CHIOS (470 - 410 BC)

• According to Proclus, Hippocrates of Chios was the first to actually compile an Elements
of geometry. While no copies of this manuscript survive, many historians believe that
Hippocrates' Elements was incorporated into the first two books of Euclid's Elements.
• Hippocrates taught in Athens and, among other things, worked on the classical
problems of squaring the circle and duplicating the cube.
• While Hippocrates did not succeed in squaring the circle, he did develop methods for
determining the areas of certain lunes, crescent-shaped areas created using arcs of
circles.
• Of greater significance is Hippocrates' discovery that the ratio of the areas of two
circles is the same as the ratio of the squares of their radii.
PLATO (427 - 347 BC)

• Plato founded and directed the Academy, a school dedicated to


research and instruction in philosophy and the sciences.
• While Plato's name is associated with the Platonic solids (cube,
tetrahedron, octahedron, icosahedron, and dodecahedron), no
important mathematical discoveries are attributed to Plato himself. All
of the great mathematical discoveries of his time were made by his
pupils.
EUDOXUS ( 408 - 355 BC)

• discovered a method for dealing with irrational numbers


• Archimedes credits Eudoxus with proving two familiar propositions from
solid geometry:
 The volume of a pyramid is one-third the volume of the prism having the
same base and equal height; and
 The volume of a cone is one-third the volume of the cylinder having the
same base and height.
EUCLID (330 - 270 BC)

• Euclid was a disciple of the Platonic school.


• Around 300 B.C. he produced the definitive treatment of Greek
geometry and number theory in his 13-volume Elements.
• His approach to geometry has dominated the teaching of the subject
for over two thousand years. Moreover, the axiomatic method used by
Euclid is the prototype for all of what we now call "pure mathematics."
CONTENT OF THE ELEMENTS

• The main topics addressed in the Elements are listed in Table 1.2.1.
THE AXIOMATIC METHOD

• The axiomatic method is a method of proving that results are correct.


• Requirements to agree that a proof is correct:
Requirement 1: Acceptance of certain statements called "axioms," or
"postulates," without further justification.
Requirement 2: Agreement on how and when one statement “follows
logically" from another, i.e., agreement on certain rules of reasoning.
UNDEFINED TERMS

• point
• line
• lie on (as in "two points lie on a unique line")
• between (as in "point C is between points A and B")
• congruent
MORE ON UNDEFINED TERMS

• "point P lies on line I,“ "I passes through P" and "P is incident with I,“ all mean
the same thing
• If point P lies on both line I and line m, we say that “I and m have point P in
common" or that "I and m intersect (or meet) in the point P.“
• "line," is synonymous with "straight line.“
• Other mathematical terms: set, belonging to or element of a set, union,
intersection, equal = identical, congruent = same size and shape
• Common Notions: “a thing is congruent to itself," and "things congruent to
the same thing are congruent to each other."
EUCLID’S POSTULATE 1

• For every point P and for every point Q not equal to P there
exists a unique line I that passes through P and Q.
“Two points determine a unique line."
We will denote the unique line that passes through P and Q
by .

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