Module 2: Nutritional

Strategies to Minimize
Nutrient Loss to Manure
By Dave Hansen

Logo
Goal

The goal of this module is to help

producers maximize nutrient utilization
on their animal operations while avoiding
waste and overfeeding.

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Objectives
The main objectives of this module are to
provide information to CAFO Owner/Operators
regarding:
 Basic concepts in animal nutrition.
 How to improve nutrient yield.
 Techniques for reducing ammonia loss.
 Economic considerations when reducing
nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) excretion.

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Contents
1. Basic nutrient cycling in animal systems
2. National Research Council (NRC) guidelines
3. Dietary strategies to improve nutrient efficiency
 Dairy
 Beef
 Swine
 Poultry

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Basic Nutrient Cycling
 The idea is the same regardless of animal (or
bird) type: to provide adequate nutrients while
minimizing waste.
 Providing nutrients in excess of animal
requirements results in increased costs of
production and contributes to potential
environmental problems.

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Basic Nutrient Cycling
(continued) Feed
provided
Waste

Feed waste
Feed
Inefficiencies can be consumed
Inefficiencie
caused by a variety Intestinal
secretions s
Undigested
of factors including (enzymes, cells)
Nutrients
feed
and secretions
housing conditions, absorbed
Maintenance
management, Nutrients available for
growth

genetics, and feed Nutrients used for

Mismatch
Inefficiencie
quality. growth
s
Growth
Nutrient paths in animal feeding operations.
Source: van Heugten and van Kempen 2000

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Nutrient Flow in an Animal
Operation

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Basic Nutrient Cycling
Nitrogen and P present different challenges.
Improving the efficiency of N use often includes
changes in the source of N, such as improving
forage quality or supplementing with amino acids.
Improving the efficiency of P use often includes
reducing unnecessary additions of supplemental
P (as with ruminants) or increasing the availability
of dietary P through such techniques as adding
phytase (as with swine and poultry).

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NRC Guidelines
In 1916 the National Academy of Sciences
organized the NRC to “…associate the broad
community of science and technology with the
Academy’s purposes of furthering knowledge
and advising the federal government.”
The various subcommittees address animal
nutrition issues and develop guidelines for each
animal type.

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NRC Guidelines (continued)
These guidelines are updated periodically to
incorporate new information.
The following tables are for dairy, beef cattle,
swine, and poultry.

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 NRC Guidelines: Dairy
Holstein, 1,5000 lb., 90 Days in Milk Early Lactation Dry, Pregnant 270
average body Days in Gestation
condition 65 mo.age BW 1,656 lb
Milk yield, lb/d 55 77 99 120 55 77
Dry matter intake 44.7 51.9 59.2 66 29.7 34.3 30.1
lb/d
Net energy, Mcal/lb 0.62 0.67 0.7 0.73 0.94 1.01 .48
Diet % RDP 9.5 9.7 9.8 9.8 10.5 10.5 8.7
Diet % RUP 4.6 5.5 6.2 6.9 7 9 2.1
Crude Proteina % 14.1 15.2 16.0 16.7 17.5 19.5 10.8
Calcium, % 0.62 0.61 0.67 0.60 0.74 0.79 0.45
Phosphorus,% 0.32 0.35 0.36 0.38 0.38 0.42 0.23
Potassiumb, % 1.00 1.04 1.06 1.07 1.19 1.24 0.52
Sodium, % 0.22 0.23 0.22 0.22 0.34 0.34 0.10
Copperc, ppm 11 11 11 11 16 16 13
Zinc, ppm 43 48 52 55 65 73 22

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NRC Guidelines: Beef, Finishing
Body Weight, lb. 525 650 775 900 1025 1150
Dry Matter Intake,
lb/d 14 17 19.5 21.5 23.5 25.5
Daily Gain, lb. Crude Protein, lb/d
1.0 1.22 1.36 1.49 1.57 1.65 1.72
1.8 1.55 1.69 1.82 1.86 1.91 1.95
2.5 1.87 2.01 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16
3.3 2.18 2.32 2.43 2.40 2.38 2.36
4.0 2.49 2.62 2.73 2.66 2.60 2.54
Calcium,
1.0 0.04 0.04 lb/d 0.05 0.05 0.00 0.05
1.8 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06
2.5 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.07 0.07 0.07
3.3 0.10 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.08 0.08
4.0 0.11 0.11 0.10 0.10 0.09 0.09
Phosphorus, lb/d
1.0 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03
1.8 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.04
2.5 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04
3.3 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.05
4.0 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05

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NRC Guidelines: Beef, Cows
Protein, Ca, and P requirements for beef cows
Months
Since Body DM
Calving Weight Intake CP Ca P
lb. lb. ------------------ lb/d ------------------
0 (Calving) 1,340 24.6 2.20 0.06 0.04
1 1,200 26.8 2.71 0.08 0.05
2 (Peak Milk) 1,200 27.8 2.97 0.09 0.06
3 1,205 28.4 2.82 0.08 0.06
4 1,205 27.4 2.54 0.07 0.05
5 1,205 26.5 2.26 0.06 0.04
6 1,210 25.7 2.04 0.06 0.04
7 (Weaning) 1,215 24.2 1.45 0.04 0.03
8 1,225 24.1 1.49 0.04 0.03
9 1,240 24.0 1.57 0.04 0.03
10 1,260 23.9 1.69 0.06 0.04
11 1,290 24.1 1.89 0.06 0.04

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NRC Guidelines: Swine
Nutrient Pig Weight Pig Weight Pig Weight Pig Weight Pig Weight Pig Weight
3-5 kg 5-10 kg 10-20 kg 20-50 kg 50-80 kg 80-120 kg
(7-11 lb) (11-22 lb) (22-44 lb (44-110 lb) (110-176 lb) (176-265 lb)
Crude Protein,
% 26.0 23.7 20.9 18.0 15.5 13.2
Lysine,
% total 1.5 1.35 1.15 0.95 0.75 0.60
Lysine, % appt.
ileal dig 1.26 1.11 0.94 0.77 0.61 0.47
Calcium, % 0.90 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.45
P, %
total 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.50 0.45 0.40
P, %
avail. 0.55 0.40 0.32 0.23 0.19 0.15
Potassium,% 0.30 0.28 0.26 0.23 0.19 0.17
Sodium, % 0.25 0.20 0.15 0.10 0.10 0.10
Copper, mg 6 6 5 4 3.5 3
Zinc, mg 100 100 80 60 50 50

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 NRC Guidelines: Poultry-
Chickens
Nutrient Layer- Layer- Layer- Broiler Broiler Broiler
80a,b 100a,b 120a,b 0-3 wk 3-6 wk 6-8 wk
Protein, % 18.8 15.0 12.5 23.0 20.0 18.0
Ca, % 4.06 3.25 2.71 1.00 0.90 0.80
P c, % 0.31 0.25 0.21 0.45 0.35 0.30
Potassium, % 0.19 0.15 0.13 0.30 0.30 0.30

Copper, mg ? ? ? 8 8 8

Zinc, mg 44 35 29 40 40 40
Sodium, % 0.19 0.15 0.13 0.20 0.15 0.12

a Grams feed intake/hen daily

b Based on dietary metabolizable energy concentration of approximately 2,900 kcal/kg (1,318 kcal/lb) and an assumed 90% egg production rate (90 eggs daily
per 100 hens).
c Phosphorus is nPP.
1Adapted from Tables 2-3, 2-6, 3-1, 5-1. Nutrient Requirements of Poultry, 9th Revised Edition, 1994. National Research Council.

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NRC Guidelines: Poultry-Turkeys
Nutrient Turkey
0-3 wk 3-6 wk 6-9 wk 9-12 wk 12-15 wk 15-18 wk
Protein, % 28.0 26.0 22.0 19.0 16.5 14.0

Ca, % 1.2 1.0 0.85 0.75 0.65 0.55

P, %c 0.6 0.5 0.42 0.38 0.32 0.28
Potassium, % 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.4
Copper, mg 8 8 6 6 6 6
Zinc, mg 70 65 50 40 40 40
Sodium., % 0.17 0.15 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12
a Grams feed intake/hen daily
b Based on dietary metabolizable energy concentration of approximately 2,900 kcal/kg (1,318 kcal/lb) and an
assumed 90% egg production rate (90 eggs daily per 100 hens).
c Phosphorus is nPP.
1Adapted from Tables 2-3, 2-6, 3-1, 5-1. Nutrient Requirements of Poultry, 9th Revised Edition, 1994. National
Research Council.

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NRC Guidelines: Poultry-Other
Nutrient Duck Duck Duck Turkey Turkey
0-2 wk 2-7 wk Breeding Tom Hen
Protein, % 22.0 16.0 15 12.0 14.0
Ca,% 0.65 0.60 2.75 0.50 2.25
P,%C 0.40 0.30 ? 0.25 0.35
Potassium, ? ? ? 0.4 0.6
%
Copper, mg ? ? ? 6 8
Zinc, mg 60 ? ? 40 65
Sodium, % 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.12 0.12
a Grams feed intake/hen daily
b Based on dietary metabolizable energy concentration of approximately 2,900 kcal/kg (1,318 kcal/lb) and
an assumed 90% egg production rate (90 eggs/100 hens daily).
c Phosphorus is nPP.
1Adapted from Tables 2-3, 2-6, 3-1, 5-1. Nutrient Requirements of Poultry, 9th Revised Edition, 1994.
National Research Council.

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Feed Waste
 Poor feeder design, poor feeder
management, and spoilage during storage
can lead to losses as great as 20%.
 Example: Swine “rooting” through feed can
cause 3.4% waste.
 Example: Feed costs account for as much as
70% of the cost of raising poultry–a little waste
means big $$.

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Dietary Strategies to Improve
Nutrient Efficiency

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Strategies for Dairy Producers
 Properly formulate
rations to
 Optimize milk yield.
 Minimize N, P, and
potassium excretion
in urine/manure.

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Strategies for Dairy Producers
(continued)
 Precisely meet requirements for
 Milk production.
 Maintenance.

 Gestation.

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Key Concepts of Nutrient Balance
on a Dairy Farm
 Understand nutrient INPUTS, OUTPUTS, and %
of nutrients that remain on the farm or that are lost
to the environment.
 Assess your nutrient balance. This allows you to
determine management options that increase the
recycling of nutrients from cropland to cattle and
back to crops again.

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Key Concepts of Nutrient Balance
on a Dairy Farm (continued)
 The percentage of dietary N and P that remain
on the dairy farm can be as high as 76% and
81% (respectively).
 Point: Profitable milk production includes both
milk productivity and efficiency of nutrient
utilization.

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Nitrogen Strategies for Dairy
 Increase dry matter uptake.
 Improve forage quality.
 Consider forage protein fraction.
 Consider feeding method.
 Consider supplemental protein source.
 Monitor blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and milk urea
nitrogen (MUN).

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Nitrogen Balance Size of Dairy, Number of Cows*
45 320 500
Input -----(tons of N per year)-----
Purchased fertilizer 1.0 13.5 26.1
Purchased feed 3.8 43.8 78.5
N fixation by legumes 1.3 14.6 13.9
Purchased cattle 0 0.1 0
Total inputs 6.1 72.0 118.5
Output
Milk 2.0 18.6 26.4
Cattle sold 0.1 1.9 1.9
Crops sold .01 0 0
Total Outputs 2.2 20.5 28.3
Remainder 3.9 51.5 90.2
% Remaining on farm 64% 71% 76%

Table Mass N balance for New York dairy farms.

Source: Klausner 1993

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A Few Terms and Definitions
 Crude protein (CP) = N x 6.25
 Rumen degradable protein (RDP) = CP that is
degraded in the rumen; required by bacteria to
grow
 Rumen undegradable protein (RUP) = “escape
or bypass” CP that is NOT degraded in rumen
but passes to lower tract

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Increase Dry Matter Uptake
 The percentage of CP required to supply adequate
protein for milk production varies
with intake level.
 Increasing dry matter intake by 5% reduces the CP
needed by about 1%.
 Higher intake levels also increase microbial protein
synthesis in the rumen.
 Increasing intake level, then, can decrease the need
for higher dietary protein.

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Improve Forage Quality
 “High-quality” forage contains more protein, less
fiber, and more energy, resulting in more protein
and digestible dry matter for the animals, which
can help reduce the amount of N inputs from off-
farm sources.

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Forage Protein Fractions
 Supplementing a highly degradable (e.g.,
legume silage) forage with a less degradable
forage (e.g., corn silage) can improve milk
production at lower CP levels.
 Common supplemental RUP sources include
blood meal, distillers grains, and soybeans.

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Feeding Method
 Feeding sequence, frequency, and grouping
strategy can impact N utilization.
 Lactating cows require a proper balance of
RUP and RDP to meet requirements for
metabolizable protein (MP).
 MP is the protein that the cow actually absorbs
and uses for production.

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Feeding Method (continued)
 Requirement for RUP = 35% to 38% of CP
 Requirement for RDP = 62% to 65% of CP
 A study by Van Horn (1992) showed the impact
of considering RUP and RDP.
 The lactating cows fed the proper amount of
RUP to supplement RDP generated 223 pounds
of N per year in manure.

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Feeding Method (continued)
 The cows fed simply to satisfy Total CP (i.e., a
higher percentage of RUP) generated 260
pounds of N per year in manure.

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Monitor BUN and MUN
 The MUN test
 > 18 mg/dl indicates that too much protein is

being fed or there is not enough dietary starch.

 High MUN is related to
 Lower reproductive performance.

 Higher feed costs.

 Health problems.

 Poorer milk production.

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Monitor BUN and MUN
(continued)
 MUN analyses can be used to signal potential
problems with feeding programs.

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Phosphorus Strategies for Dairy
 Phosphorus is an expensive supplement.
 Most commercial mixes include P.
 Current guidelines specify 0.32% to 0.42% P for
lactating cows.
 It is common for producers to feed as much as
0.60% P.
 Numerous studies show no production benefit
from these high levels of P!

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Phosphorus Balance
Size of Dairy, Number of Cows*
45 320 500
Input -----(tons of P per year)-----
Purchased fertilizer 1.2 2.0 5.5
Purchased feed 1.0 8.4 14.2
0 0.03 0

Total inputs 2.2 10.4 24.2

Output
Milk 0.36 3.8 5.5
Cattle sold 0.05 0.5 0.5
Crops sold 0.01 0 0
Total Outputs 0.43 4.3 6.0
Remainder 1.8 6.2 18.2
% Remaining on farm 81% 59% 75%

Mass P balance for New York dairy farms

Source: Klausner 1993

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Effect of P Intake on P Excretion
P excretion (lb)
 Increasing P content 70
from 0.40% to 0.60% 60
of diet dry matter 50
40
increases P output 30
from 40 to 69 20
lbs/cow/year! 10
0
0.4 0.5 0.6

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Sources of P
 High availability
 Monocalcium phosphate

 Dicalcium phosphate

 Monosodium or ammonium phosphate

 Medium availability
 Steamed bone meal

 Sodium tripolyphosphate

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Sources of P (continued)
 Low availability
 Low-fluorine rock phosphate
 Soft rock phosphate

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Phytate P
 Phytate-P is not readily available to non-
ruminants such as swine.
 However, rumen microbes produce phytase.
 Releases P from phytate
 So, phytate-P is available to ruminants.
 And, it is not necessary to over-supplement P
above requirements.

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Feeding Excess P Costs $$$
 P is the most expensive mineral commonly
supplemented in dairy cows.
 Example: A diet containing 0.45% P vs. a diet
containing 0.55% P would save about $0.05
per cow daily.
 For 100 cows a year, that is $1,825.

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Feeding P: The Bottom Line
 The milking herd should be grouped by
production level so that multiple rations
can be formulated over the complete
lactation.

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The Bottom Line for Dairies
 Are high milk yield and minimal nutrient excretion
mutually exclusive?
 No, you can do both!
 Focus on
 Testing all forages/feeds.

 Properly formulating rations.

 Maximizing feed intake.

 Cow comfort and proper grouping.

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Strategies for Beef Cattle
 Develop a general understanding of N (protein)
and P metabolism in feedlot cattle.
 Understand current methods for decreasing N
and P excretion by manipulating beef feedlot
diets
 P requirements
 Protein requirements

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Nitrogen Management

 Discuss protein requirements

 Impact of lowering dietary N

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Dietary Protein
Theory for lowering protein
 All excess protein above requirements have
no value.
 Excess protein is absorbed in the small
intestine.
 Protein is de-animated in the liver.
 Urea is subsequently excreted in urine at
the kidney.

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Dietary Protein (continued)
 Urea is rapidly converted to ammonia following
deposition. Therefore,
 Feeding less protein leads to less urea
excretion.
 Lower urea excretion should decrease
ammonia.

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Dietary Protein (continued)
CP system
 Assumes all proteins are equal.
 Important point: protein is N
 % N * 6.25, protein is ~16% N
 Does not account for bacterial needs.
 Is simple but incorrect!

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Protein Requirements
MP system
 DIP * TDN * microbe efficiency = BCP
(degradable N and energy)
 Efficiency dependent on rumen pH, ~8-8.5
 BCP*.64 to determine protein at S.I.
 UIP * .80 to estimate protein at S.I.
 BCP + UIP = MP

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Protein Requirements (continued)
MP system
Feed protein Rumen
urea, corn
protein
UIP
DIP
DIP

MP Small
BCP BCP Intestine
NH3 + carbon =
microbial protein
(BCP)

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N Balance Summary
 Overfeeding protein increases N losses.
 Nutrition may:
 Decrease N inputs by 10% to 20%.
 Reduce N excretion by 12% to 21%.
 Reduce N volatilization by 15% to
33%.

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N Balance Summary (continued)
 Volatilization depends on the time of year.
 Summer–60 to 70% of N excreted
 Winter/spring–40% of N excreted
 Based on annual occupancy, lose 50% of N
excreted.

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P Management

x x x
x x x x
x x
Ex. ADG

x x
x x x
x
x
x
x

NRC predicts requirements from 0.22% to 0.32% of diet DM.

P intake

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Dietary P in Feedlot Diets
0.7
% diet P (DM-basis)

Supplement 0.59
0.6 Byproduct 0.52
Corn
0.5 Roughage
0.35
0.4 0.27
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
85% Corn 85% Corn + Byproduct Byproduct +
Supplement Supplement

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P Requirements: Yearlings
Bone Ash
P intake Phalanx
% DM g/d g % HCW
0.14 16.4 28.3 3.64
0.19 19.9 27.5 3.64
0.24 27.6 28.9 3.72

0.29 32.0 27.5 3.55

0.34 36.2 28.5 3.84
SE .7 1.0 .20
Erickson et al., 1999. J. Anim. Sci.

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P Requirements: Yearlings
(continued)
Metacarpal Phalanx

Erickson et al., 1999. J. Anim. Sci.

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P Requirements: Calves
Feed % of Diet DM %P
High-moisture corn 33.5 0.32
Brewers grits 30.0 0.08
Corn bran 20.0 0.08
Cottonseed hulls 7.5 0.11
Animal fat 3.0 ----
Supplement 6.0 0.09
Note: NaH2PO4 provided as top-dress supplement at increments
of 0.06% P.
Base diet = 0.16% P, and 0.22, 0.28, 0.34, 0.40
Erickson et al., 1999. J. Anim. Sci.

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P Mass Balance: Summer
Yearlings Feedlot Pen

1.9 lb
0.35% P diet 10.9 lb anima 12.8 lb
excreted l intake
REDUCE
D
1.9 lb 44%
0.24% P diet 5.3 lb anima 7.2 lb
excreted l intake

Erickson et al., ISAAFPW, 2000

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P Mass Balance: Winter/Spring
Calves Feedlot Pen

2.5 lb
0.40% P diet 12.5 lb animal 15.0 lb
excreted intake
REDUCE
D
2.4 lb 33%
0.26% P diet 7.5 lb anima 9.9 lb
excreted l intake

Erickson et al., ISAAFPW, 2000

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P Mass Balance (continued)
0.35%-0.40% P 0.22%-0.30% P
234,000 lb/yr 128,000 lb/yr

8,624 acres
15,690 acres

Assume:
50% of surrounding land used Assume: (same)
30 lb/ac P applied (agronomic)
10,000 hd feedlot, 90 acres

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P Balance Conclusions
 Overfeeding P leads to elevated manure P.
 Nutrition may:
Decrease P inputs by 33% to 45%.
Reduce P excretion by 40% to 50%.
 Direct reduction in acres needed
 Expect manure removal = nutrient excretion for
P

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Beef Strategies Overview
 Test feed.
 Use supplemental protein.
 Discontinue supplemental P.
 Consider phase feeding.
 Utilize differences between DIP and UIP.
 Use available tools to evaluate your rations.

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Summary
 Nutrition can have a major impact on N and P
excretion for feedlot cattle.
 Phosphorus supplementation is unnecessary.

 It is difficult to further decrease P below what

corn provides.
 Utilizing an MP system may lower N excretion.

 Decreased urinary N excretion decreases N

volatilization losses.

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Summary (continued)
 Volatization is a large concern.
 More management options and/or nutritional
techniques need to be explored.
 Fine-tuning requirements on the MP system is
needed.
 Eventually, metabolizable amino acids (AAs) will
be useful similar to the ideal protein concept in
monogastrics.

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Strategies for Swine
 Feed waste issues
 Improving N management
AAs
 Improving P management
Phytate-P

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Nutrition: The Easy Way to
Reduce Waste?
 Under field conditions, animals use nutrients with
mediocre efficiency:
P: 30%
N: 30% to 35%
 Under lab conditions:
N: 70%
P: close to 100%
 There is a lot of potential for reducing waste.

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 The Key: Understanding
Inefficiencies in Nutrient
Utilization  Many steps are involved in
Feed provided Waste the utilization of nutrients.
Feed consumed
Feed waste  Each step has
inefficiencies
Intestinal secretions Inefficiencies
(enzymes, cells) Undigested associated with it.
feed
Nutrients absorbed and secretions  The key to reducing waste
Maintenance is to understand where
Nutrients available for
growth utilization can be
Mismatch
Nutrients used for
Inefficiencies
influenced.
growth
Growth

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Feed Waste: An Expensive Loss
of Nutrients Feed waste 
Feed provided Waste  Adherence: pigs take
Feed waste 1.5 g feed away from
feeder 60 times/day
(~ 4% of “intake”)
 Portion may be
returned.
 Spillage: pigs push
3.4% of feed out of
feeder (in practice,
range 1.5% to 20%).

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-68

Feed Waste: An Expensive Loss
of Nutrients (continued)
 Presuming 5% waste on average:
 Responsible for 7.5% of N in waste.
 Similar contribution for copper, zinc, and P
 35% of carbohydrates
 Major source of odor

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-69

Management: Key to Solving
Feed Waste . . .
 Traditional guidelines:
 Proper feeder care and adjustment can
reduce feed waste drastically.
 Bottom of feeders should be 50% covered
with fresh feed.
• Pig needs to exert effort to eat.

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-70

Management: Key to Solving
Feed Waste . . . (continued)
 Feeders should be inspected at least
weekly.
• Clean and adjust where necessary.

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-71

Feeder Design may add to the
Problem.
 Feeders should be sized properly.
 Only one pig per feeder space
 Challenge given that pigs change in size
 Pigs should not have to step in feeders to
gain access to feed.

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-72

Feeder Design may add to the
Problem. (continued)
 Feeders should be deep enough to prevent
pigs from pushing out feed.
 Catch 22 but 8 inches deep seems to work
reasonably well.
• Problem exaggerated in wean-finish
buildings.
 Feeders should not have “dead” corners where
feed gets trapped and spoils.

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-73

Feeder Design: The “Ideal”
 Pigs like to chew and swallow with their heads
straight.
 Traditional feeder design does not allow this over

the feeder.
 Pig needs to back up.

• Waste falls in the pit.

 Thus, feeders should be “spacious.”

 Filling level not an issue?

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-74

Present Feed in most Palatable
Form.
 Feed should be pelleted.
 Reduces feed waste ~5%
 Dry feed is not very palatable.
 Pigs move back and forth from feeder to
waterer while eating, dropping feed.

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-75

Present Feed in most Palatable
Form. (continued)
 Wet-dry or liquid feeders
 Back and forth motion is prevented.
 Reduces feed waste
 Increases feed intake and weight gain

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-76

Select Highly Digestible
Ingredients.
Protein Phosphorus
Feed Ingredient Digestibility, Content, Digestibility, Content,
% % % %
Corn 85 8.5 14 0.28
Soybean meal 48 87 49.0 23 0.69
Soybean meal 44 84 45.6 31 0.65
Wheat 89 13.3 50 0.37
Wheat bran 75 15.7 29 1.20
Barley 85 10.6 30 0.36
Sorghum 83 9.2 20 0.29
Meat & bone meal 84 49.1 95 4.98
Poultry byproducts 77 57.7 95 2.41
Fish meal 88 62.9 95 2.20
Dicalcium phosph 100 18.50
Adapted from NRC 1998, and the Rhone-Poulenc Nutrition Guide 1993.

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New Crops offer new Solutions.
Low-Phytate
P% Normal Corn Corn
Total 0.25 0.28
Phytate 0.20 0.10
Bio-available 0.05 0.21

 Low-phytate corn and soybeans have much

higher P digestibility.
 Low-stacchyose soybean meal has higher
protein and energy digestibility.

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-78

Processing can Improve Nutrient
Digestibility.
 Grinding:
 Grind feed to uniform particle size of ~ 600
microns.
 Pelleting:
 Improves protein digestibility 3.7%.

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-79

Processing can Improve Nutrient
Digestibility. (continued)
 Expanding/extruding:
 Improves pellet quality.
 Effects on digestibility are very diet-
dependent.
 Effects can be negative!

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-80

Opportunities with Enzymes
 Fiber-degrading enzymes
 Wheat/barley/rye as major ingredients:
 Xylanase/beta-glucanase improve
digestibility 2% to 9%.
 Corn-soy diets:
 Alpha-galactosidase, proteases, etc.
may prove effective.

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-81

Phytase Effect on P Availability
 Plants contain a large portion of P in the form of
phytate.
 Pigs cannot digest phytate.
 Most plant P is thus unavailable.
 Phytase can break down phytate, releasing the
P.
 In a typical diet, P availability increases from
30% to 50%.
 30% reduction in P excretion

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-82

Feed Quality Affects the
Recycling of Enzyme Protein.
 High-fiber diets reduce the absorption of protein,
including enzymes.
 Fiber is the single most predictive factor for
apparent protein digestion.
 Has a strong negative influence

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-83

The More Ingredients that are
used, the Better the Match!
 Feed nutrients often Requirement
Lysine added
No synthetics
Lys, Met, Thr, Try added

are wasted because 1.8

1.6

the diet is not ideal. 1.4

1.2

Percent
1.0

A 1% point reduction in 0.8

0.6
dietary protein results in 0.4
0.2
a 10% decrease in N 0.0

excretion and ammonia Protein/10 arginine lysine SAA threonine

emission.

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-84

The More Ingredients that are
used, the Better the Match!
(continued)
 Contributors to this issue:
 Small number of ingredients.
 Limits flexibility in matching animal-specific
profile.

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-85

Formulate on Available Nutrients.
Availability of nutrients Total lysine Digestible lysine
is not uniform. 110

 In typical feed, N > P 100

Gain (relative)
90
and Lys > Cys.
80
 Presuming that all 70

nutrients are equally 60

available leads to 50
Soybean Sunflower Rapeseed
larger mismatch, meal meal meal

may hurt perfor-

mance, and thus Diets formulated on total
or digestible amino acids
increases waste.

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-86

Diets Should be Optimally
Matched to the Animal’s
Requirement.
 Nutritional requirements change with:
 Maintenance requirement (affected by sex,
age, and weight).
 Gain and composition of gain.
 Health status, environmental conditions, and
activity.

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-87

Diets Should be Optimally
Matched to the Animal’s
Requirement. (continued)
Examples of nutritional strategies:
 Split-sex feeding
 Barrows require more energy for
maintenance than gilts.
 Increase energy-to-protein ratio of the
feed for barrows.

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-88

Diets Should be Optimally
Matched to the Animal’s
Requirement. (continued)
 Temperature outside of thermo-neutral zone
 Energy is used for thermo-regulation.
 Increase energy-to-protein ratio.

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-89

Phase Feeding Reduces Waste
 Nutritional requirements
change continuously.
 Protein-to-energy 0.90
Continuous 3 phase 2 phase 1 phase

ratio of feed de-

Lysine requirement (%)

0.80

creases with age. 0.70

 Diet should be
0.60

0.50
adjusted to
0.40
match this 50 100 150 200 250
bodyweight (lbs)
decrease.
• Phase feeding

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-90

Phase Feeding Reduces Waste.
(continued)
Inefficiencies occur when the diet provides
more nutrients than the animal needs:
More phases = less waste

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-91

Phase-Feeding Diets are less
Expensive.
 More phases = less waste and cheaper diets.
 But also = more hassle
 Compromise between number of phases and
benefits achievable
 In-line mixers/liquid feeding systems allow for
continuously changing the diet composition
without increasing hassle.

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-92

Phase-Feeding Diets are less
Expensive. (continued)
$43
Diet cost obtained
using least-cost feed $42

Diet cost per pig

formulation for a
varying number of $41

phases in the feeding $40

program.
$39
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Number of phases

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-93

Precision Nutrition is Hindered
by Feed Manufacturing Issues.
 Feed manufacturing issues
 Variation in ingredient quality
 Somewhat compensated for by over
formulating (= more waste)
 Weighing errors
 Mixing problems

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-94

Precision Nutrition is Hindered by
Feed Manufacturing Issues.
(continued)
 All augment waste and possibly reduce
performance. 10000

1000

Frequency
Weighing errors were 100

10
observed in 14 feed
1
mills specializing in
0
swine feeds.

0
20
40
60
80
-80
-60
-40
-20

100
120
140
160
180
200
-100
Weighing error (%±1)

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-95

Is Mineral Nutrition Overdone?
 Diets are typically over-formulated as a measure
of security.
 Increases waste.

Sow Diets Finisher Diets

Mineral Req. Range Median1 Req. Range Median1
Calcium, % 0.75 0.62-2.01 1.21 0.50 0.57-1.38 0.96
Phosphorus, % 0.60 0.45-1.17 0.84 0.40 0.45-0.78 0.62
Copper, ppm 5 12-222 22 3 9–281 20
Zinc, ppm 50 79-497 167 50 103-205 149

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-96

Is Mineral Nutrition Overdone?
(continued)
 The P requirement is higher for maximizing bone
strength than for maximizing gain.
 Difference of 0.1% point
 For non-reproducing animals, formulating
diets to maximize gain may be warranted.

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-97

Strategies for Poultry
 Nitrogen management
Amino acid
Phase feeding
Enzymes and
additives
 Phosphorus
management
Available P
Phytate-P

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-98

Tracking N in Broilers

Feed N = 100%

18.3% 30.6%
Litter
51.1% Carcass
NH3-N

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-99

Dietary Strategies for N
 Formulate on amino acids (AAs), not CP.
 Optimize the dietary AA profile.
 Phase feeding
 Utilize the “true AA digestibility” of feeds.
 Select feed ingredients with low nutrient
availability.
 Utilize enzymes and feed additives.
 Avoid anti-nutritional factors.

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-100

Formulate on Amino Acids
 Formulating based on AA rather than CP can
lower N content by lowering dietary N input.
 Utilizing AAs, such as methionine and lysine,
reduces dietary protein from 18% to 16% and
reduces the cost of the diet by more than $4/ton.
 Although it is possible to reduce dietary CP
levels by 3% to 4% (13%-22% N), there are
biological limits to the amount of dietary protein
that can be replaced with synthetic AAs.

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-101

NRC Requirement vs. 23% CP
Corn/Soy Diet

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-102

Optimize the Dietary AA Profile
 Matching the birds' dietary AA with their
biological needs minimizes N excretion.
 However, simply supplementing AAs, such as
methionine and lysine, can result in excesses of
other AAs that are then excreted.
 A possible solution is an “ideal protein”
supplement that provides all the essential AAs
in their proper proportion.
 These “proper proportions” are not always
known!

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-103

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-104
Phase Feeding
 The nutritional requirements of birds change
over time.
 Example: Broilers require approximately 22%
CP at hatching and 16% CP at four weeks.
 Commercial programs can include as many as
six different phases to step down dietary protein.
 Further refinements are possible based on feed
sources and timing of grow-out period.

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-105

Utilize “True AA Digestibility.”
 Amino acid digestibility varies with feed type.
 Diets should be based on the digestible fraction
rather than simply the amount of AAs present in
the feed.
 Calculated digestible AA requirements can be
8%-10% lower than total AA requirements.
 Formulation based on digestible AAs improves
daily gain and feed conversion.

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-106

Select “Low-Nutrient” Feeds.
 Variability in the nutrient values of common
feeds leads nutritionists to add a margin of
safety, ensuring that nutritional needs are met.
 Example: The AA content of meat meal can
vary by as much as 45%.
 Rapid ingredient analysis techniques, such as
NIR, provide real-time information on the feed's
nutritional value.
 This information reduces the need for over-
formulation as a safety margin.

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-107

Meat Meal Variation

AA A B C Mean CV %
Met 0.61 0.41 0.49 0.50 20.13
Cys 0.70 0.30 0.39 0.46 45.62
Lys 2.77 1.93 1.94 2.21 21.82
Thr 1.73 1.12 1.25 1.37 23.45
Arg 3.62 3.00 2.90 3.17 12.3

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-108

Utilize Enzymes and Additives.
 Water-soluble, nonstarch polysaccharides
(NSPs) impede digestion and absorption of fats,
proteins, and carbohydrates.
 Many important diet constituents, such as
soybean and peas, contain complex NSPs.
 Phytase improves the digestibility of AAs and
protein as well as phytate-P.
 Dietary enzymes can improve the digestibility of
fiber and carbohydrates.

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-109

Avoid Anti-Nutritional Factors.
 Many legumes and cereal grains contain
compounds that have a negative effect on
digestion and the availability of AAs and other
nutrients.
 Soybean contain, among other things, a
trypsin inhibitor that impedes protein
digestion.

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-110

Avoid Anti-Nutritional Factors.
(continued)
 Some beans, particularly field beans, have
high concentrations of lectins that can reduce
growth and decrease nutrient absorption.
 Minimizing the use of these inputs will increase
nutrient utilization by the birds.

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-111

Tracking P in Broilers

Feed P = 100%

35.0%
57.4% Litter
Carcass

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-112

Dietary Strategies for P
 Meet bird P requirements.
 Select ingredients with available P.
 Use vitamin D.
 Use feed additives/enzymes.

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-113

Meet Bird P Requirements.
 The NRC (1994) recommends 250 mg of
available P (non-phytate) per hen per day
 Leghorn breeders guide recommends 450 mg-
460 mg/day early in lay and 288 mg-390 mg late
in the cycle.
 Research (Scott et al. 1999, Boling et al. 2000,
and Angel 2000) suggests that the NRC
guidelines are adequate.

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-114

Meet Bird P Requirements.
(continued)
 In a four-week period, 1.2 million hens in a large
complex consume 7.4 million lbs of feed (3,696
tons).
 If dietary available P were reduced from 450 mg
to 250 mg/hen/day, it represents a $4.82/ton cost
savings in dietary dicalcium phosphate, totaling
$17,814 in feed costs.
 With such a formulation, fecal P2O5 is reduced
approximately 35,000 lbs in one month!

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-115

Select Ingredients with Available
P.
 Birds do not absorb phytic acid, or phytate-P,
well.
 Many cereal grains, such as corn and soybeans,
have a high percentage of their total P in the
phytate form, which results in an availability of
less than 20%.
 Animal meals and fish meal have nearly 100%
available P.

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-116

Select Ingredients with Available
P. (continued)
 Inorganic supplements also have a relatively
high P availability.
 New products, such as low-phytate corn, are not
yet commercially available but have two to three
times as much available P as “standard” corn
varieties.

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-117

Phosphate Supplement
Comparison
Compound Biological Value
Beta-trical phosphate Std 100
Reagent: Monocal PO4 120-135
Reagent: Dical PO4 95-100
Feed: Phosphoric acid 115-125
Feed: Dical/Monocal P 105-115
Feed: Bone meal 90-100
Feed: Rock phosphate 55-75

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-118

Use Vitamin D.
 Vitamin D deficiencies inhibit P metabolism.
 Adding 1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D3 reduced
phytate-P excretion by broilers by 35% and
increased retention by 20% (Edwards 1993).

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-119

Use Feed Additives/Enzymes.
 Birds absorb phytate-P poorly because they lack
the enzyme phytase.
 In addition to improving AA efficiency, adding
phytase to poultry diets improves the digestibility
of phytate-P.
 Reductions in fecal P excretions from using
phytase can be as much as 40%.

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-120

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-121
Use Feed Additives/Enzymes.
(continued)
 Enzymatic “cocktails” containing a mixture of
enzymes, including phytase, have been found to
be more effective that phytase alone.
 Such cocktails can improve calcium retention,
weight gain, feed conversion, and toe tibia ash.

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-122

Overall Summary
 Numerous dietary and management strategies
exist to reduce
 N excretions.
 P excretions.
 Significant reductions can be achieved without
significant expense by using the information and
guidelines available from the NRC and from
various research and Extension publications.

Logo Certified Nutrient Management Planning 2-123