COMPACTION

INTRODUCTION

• Compaction means pressing the soil particles close

to each other by mechanical methods. Air during
compaction is expelled from the void space in the
soil mass and, therefore, the mass density is
increased.
• Compaction of a soil mass is done to improve its
engineering properties. Compaction generally
increases the strength of the soil, and hence the
stability and bearing capacity. It is also useful in
reducing compressibility and permeability of the soil.
Compaction is an entirely different process than
consolidation. It is important to note the following basic
differences between the two processes, even though both
the process cause a reduction in the volume.
• Consolidation is a gradual process of reduction of volume
under sustained, static loading; whereas compaction is a
rapid process of reduction of volume by mechanical
means such as rolling, tamping and vibration.
• Consolidation causes a reduction in volume of saturated
soil due to squeezing out of water from the soil;
whereas in compaction, the volume of a partially
saturated soil decreases because of expulsion of air from
the voids at the unaltered water content
Consolidation is a process which occurs in nature when the
saturated soil deposits are subjected to static loads caused
by the weight of the buildings and other structure. In
contrast, compaction is an artificial process which is done
to increase the density (unit weight) of the soil to improve
its properties before it is put to any use.
• Compaction of soil is required for the
construction of earth dams, canal
embankments, highways, runways and in
many other engineering applications. This
chapter deals with various methods of
compaction and their effects on the
engineering properties of the soil. Various
other methods of site improvement are also
discussed.
• STANDARD PROCTOR TEST
• MODIFIED PROCTOR TEST
• STANDARD PROCTOR TEST
• To assess the amount of compaction and the water content
required in the field, compaction tests are done on the same soil in
the laboratory. The tests provide a relationship between the water
content and the dry density. The water content at which the
maximum dry density is attained is obtained from the relationships
provided by the tests.
• Proctor (1933) used a standard mould of 4 inches internal diameter
and an effective height of 4.6 inches, with a capacity of 1/30 cubic
foot. The mould had a detachable base plate, and a removable
collar of 2 inches height at its top. The soil is compacted in
the mould in 3 equal layers, each layer was given 25
blows 5.5 pounds rammer falling through a height of
12 inches. A curve was obtained between the dry
density and the water content.
• IS:2720 (Part VII) recommends essentially the
same specifications as in Standard Proctor test,
with some minor modifications and
metrification. The mould recommended is of
100 mm diameter, 127.3 mmheight and 1000
ml capacity.
• The rammer recommended is of 2.6 kg mass
with a free drop of 310 mm and a face
diameter of 50 mm. The soil is compacted in
three layers. The mould is fixed to a detachable
base plate. The collar is of 60 mm height.
If the percentage of soil retained on 4.75 mm sieve is more
than 20%, a larger mould of internal diameter 150 mm,
effective height of 127.3 mm and capacity 2250 ml is
recommended.
• Procedure: About 3 kg of air-dried, pulverised
soil passing 4.75 mm sieve is taken. Water is
added to the soil to bring its water content to
about 4% if the soil is coarse-grained and to
about 8% if it is fine-grained. The water
content should be much less than the
expected optimum water content.
• The soil is mixed thoroughly and covered with
a wet cloth and left for maturing for about 15
to 30 minutes
 Range of Optimum Water Content
Sand Sandy silt or silty sand Silt Clay

6 to 10% 8 to 12 % 12 to 16% 14 to 20%

.
The mould is cleaned, dried and greased lightly. The mass of
the empty mould with the base plate, but without collar, is
taken. The collar is then fitted to the mould. The mould is
placed on a solid base and filled with fully matured soil to
about one-third its height.
• The soil is compacted by 25 blows of the rammer,
with a free fall of 310 mm. (The number of blows
required for the bigger mould of 2250 ml capacity
is 56 instead of 25).
• The blows are evenly distributed over the surface.
The soil surface is scratches with a spatula before
the second Layer is placed.
• The mould is filled to about two-thirds height with
the soil and compact again by 25 blows. Likewise,
the third layer is placed and compacted. The third
layer should project above the top of the mould
into the collar by not more than 6 mm.
• The collar is rotated to break the bond
between the soil in the mould and that in
collar. The collar is then removed, and the soil
is trimmed off flush with the top of the mould.
The mass of the mould, base plate and the
compacted soil is taken, and thus the mass of
the compacted soil is determined.
• The bulk density of the soil is computed from
the mass of the compacted soil and the
volume of the mould.
• Representative soil samples are taken from the
bottom, middle and top of the mould for
determining the water content. The dry density is
computed from the bulk density and the water
content.

Bulk mass density,

ρ = gm/ml

where M = mass of compacted soil (gm),

V = volume of the mould (ml).
• Dry density, ρ d=

Where, w is the water content.

• The soil removed from the mould is broken
with hand. More water is added to the soil so
as to increase the water content by 2 to 3%. It
is thoroughly mixed and allowed to mature.
The test is repeated and the dry density and
the water content are determined.
Compaction Curve:
• A compaction curve is plotted between the water
content as absoissa and the corresponding dry
density as ordinate . It is observed that the dry
density initially increases with an increase in
water content till the maximum density (ρd) max is
attained. With further increase in water content,
the dry density decreases.
• The water content corresponding to the
maximum dry density is known as the optimum
water content (O.W.C.) or the optimum moisture
content (O.M.C.).
• For a given water content, theoretical maximum
density, (ρd) theomax , is obtained corresponding to
the condition when there are no air voids (i.e
degree of saturation is equal to 100%). The
theoretical maximum dry density is also known
as saturated dry density (ρd) sat. In this condition,
the soil becomes saturated by reduction in air
voids to zero but with no change in water
content.
• The soil would also become saturated by
increasing the water content such that all air
voids are filled.
• An expression for the theoretical maximum
density is developed below.
From the equations, the dry density (pd) is
expressed as
ρd =
As e = w G/S, ρd =
The theoretical maximum dry density occurs
when s= 100%
Thus (ρd) theomax =
• It may be mentioned that compaction methods
cannot remove all the air voids, and, therefore, the
soil never becomes fully saturated. Thus, the
theoretical maximum dry density is only hypothetical.
It can be calculated for any value of w if the value of G
is known.
• The line indicating the theoretical maximum dry
density can be plotted along with the compaction
curve. It is also known as zero air void line or 100%
saturation line.
• Likewise, the lines for other degrees of saturation, say
80%, 90% etc. can be drawn. For example, for =90% .
ρd =
• Instead of drawing lines corresponding to different degrees
of saturation, it is sometimes more convenient to draw lines
corresponding to different percentage air voids (na).
ρd =
• For the theoretical maximum density, na=0. Therefore,
(ρd) theomax =
Thus, the zero- air void line and 100% saturation line are
identical.
• The lines for other percentages of air voids, such as
10%,20%, etc. Can be drawn. For example, for 10% air voids,
ρd =
• It may be noted that 10% air void line and 90% saturation
line or not identical.
• The water content at which the soil is compacted in the field is
controlled by the value of the optimum water content
determined by the laboratory compaction test.
• The amount of compaction in the field should be approximately
equal to that in the laboratory, The standard Proctor test
described above is adequate to represent the compaction of fills
behind retaining walls and in highways and earth dams where
light rollers are used. In such cases, the optimum water content
obtained from the standard Proctor test can be used as a control
criterion.
• However, in situations where heavier compaction is required, for
example in modern highways and runways. The standard Proctor
test does not represent the equivalent compaction in the
laboratory. For such conditions, the modified Proctor test, as
described in the following section, is used to represent the
compaction in the field.
• MODIFIED PROCTOR TEST
• The modified Proctor test was developed to
represent heavier compaction than that in the
standard Proctor test. The test is used to
simulate the field conditions where heavy
rollers are used. The test was standardised by
the American Association of State Highway
Officials and is, therefore, also known as
modified AASHO-test. The Indian Standard
Code IS:2720 (Part VIII) gives the specifications
for heavy compaction based on this test.
• In the modified Proctor test, the mould used is the
same as in the standard Proctor test. However the
rammer use is much heavier and has a greater drop
than that in the standard Proctor test. It mass is 4.89
kg and the free drop is 450 mm. The face diameter is
50 mm as in the standard proctor test.
• The soil is compacted in five equal layers, each layer is
given 25 blows. The compactive effort in the modified
proctor test, measured in kJ/m3 of soil, is about 4.56
times that in the standard Proctor test. Thus, a much
heavier compaction is attained.
• (Compactive effort in modified Proctor test = 2700
kJ/m3; in standard proctor test = 592 kJ/m3).
• If the percentage of soil retained on a 4.75 mm sieve is more
than 20%, the larger mould of 150 mm internal diameter,
effective height of 127.3 mm and capacity 2250 ml is used. In
this case, 56 blows are required for each layer. The rest of the
procedure is similar to that in the standard Proctor test.
• The dry densities are obtained for different water contents
and the compaction curve id drawn. shows the compaction
curve for the modified Proctor Test (curve No. 2).
• The curve in higher than to the left of that obtained from a
standard Proctor test (curve no. 1).
• The heavier compact increases the maximum dry density but
decreases the optimum water content. The percentage
increase of the dry density is between 3 to 18% for most soils,
the percentage increase is more for clayey soils than for the
sandy soils.
The fig shows, zero air-void line. It may be noted that the
maximum dry density attained even in the modified Proctor
test lower than the theoretical maximum dry density
indicated by the zero air-void line. The line of optimums
shown in the figure joins the points indicating the maximum
dry density.It is roughly parallel to the zero air-void line.
FACTORS AFFECTING COMPACTION
The dry density of the soil is increased by compaction. The increase in
the dry density depends upon the following factors:
• Water Content. At low water content, the soil is stiff and offers more
resistance to compaction. As the water content is increased, the soil
particles get lubricated. The soil mass becomes more workable and
the particles have closer packing. The dry density of the soil increases
with an increase in the water content till the optimum water content
is reached. At that stage, the air voids attain approximately a constant
volume. With further increase in water content, the air voids do not
decrease, but the total voids (air plus water) increase and the dry
density decreases. Thus the higher dry density is achieved upto the
optimum content due to forcing air out from the soil voids. After the
optimum water content is reached, it become more difficult to force
air out and to further reduce the air voids.
• Amount of Compaction. As discussed earlier, the effect of
increasing the amount of compactive effort is to increase the
maximum dry density and to decrease the optimum water
content. At a water content less than the optimum, the effect of
increased compaction is more predominant. At a water content
more than the optimum, the volume of air voids becomes almost
constant and the effect of increased compaction is not significant.

• It may be mentioned that the maximum dry density does not go

on increase in the compactive effort. For a certain increase in the
compactive effort, the increase in the dry density becomes
smaller and smaller. Finally, a stage is reached beyond which is
there is no further increase in the dry density with an increase in
the compactive effort.
• Type of Soil. The dry density achieved depends upon the type of
soil.The maximum dry density and the optimum water content for
different soils. In general, coarse-grained soils can be compacted
to higher dry density than fine grained soils. With the addition of
even a small quantity of fines to a coarse-grained soil, the soil
attains a much higher dry density for the same compactive effort.
• However, if the quantity of fines is increased to a value more than
that required to fill the voids of the course grained soils, the is the
maximum dry density decreases. A well graded sand attains a
much higher dry density than a poorly graded soil.
• Cohesive soils have high air voids. These soils attain a relatively
lower maximum dry density as compared with the cohesion less
soils. Such soils require more water than cohesion less soils and,
therefore, the optimum water content is high. Heavy clays of very
high plasticity have very low dry density and a very high optimum
water content.
• Method of Compaction. The dry density achieved depends
not only upon the amount of compactive effort but also on
the method of compaction. For the same amount of
compactive effort, the dry density will depend upon whether
the method of compaction utilizes kneading action, dynamic
action or static action. For War Miniature compaction test, the
soil is compacted by the kneading action.
• Admixture. The compaction characteristics of
the soils are improved by adding other
materials, known as admixtures. The most
commonly used admixtures are lines, cement
and bitumen and bitumen. The dry density
achieved depends upon the type and amount
of ad mixtures.
EFFECT OF COMPACTION ON PROPERTIES OF
SOILS
• The engineering properties of soils are improved
by compaction. The desirable properties are
achieved by proper selection of the soil type, the
mode of placement and the method of
compaction. The effect of compaction on various
soil properties is discussed below.
• In the following discussions, the dry of optimum
means when the water content is less than the
optimum, and the wet of optimum means when
the water content is more than the optimum.
• Soil structure. The water content at which the soil is
compacted plays an important role in the engineering
properties of the soil. Soils compacted at a water content less
than the optimum water content generally have a flocculated
structure, regardless of the method of compaction. Soils
compacted at a water content more than the optimum water
content usually have a dispersed structure if the compaction
induced large shear strains and a flocculated structure if the
shear strains are relatively small. At point A on the dry side of
the optimum, the water content is so low that the attractive
forces are more predominant than the repulsive forces.
This results in a flocculated structure. As the water content
is increased beyond the optimum, the repulsive forces
Increase and the particles get oriented into dispersed
structure. If the compactive effort is increased, there is a
corresponding increase in the orientation of the particles
and higher dry densities are obtained as shown by the upper
curve.
• Permeability. The permeability of a soil depends upon the size of
voids, The permeability of a soil decrease with an increase in water
content on the dry side of the optimum water content. There is an
improved orientation of the particles and a corresponding reduction
in the size of voids which cause decrease in permeability. The
minimum permeability occurs at or slightly water content. After that
stage, the permeability slightly increases, but it always remains much
less than that on the dry side of the optimum. The slight increase in
the dry density is more pronounced improved orientation.
• Swelling. A soil compacted dry of the optimum water content has
high water deficiency and more random orientation of particles.
Consequently, it imbibes more water than the sample compacted wet
of the optimum, and has, therefore, more swelling.
• Pore water pressure. A sample compacted dry of the optimum has
low water content. The porewater pressure developed for the soil
compacted dry of the optimum is therefore Less than that for the
same soil compacted wet of the optimum.
• Shrinkage. Soils compacted dry of the optimum shrink less on drying
compared with those compacted wet of the optimum. The soils
compacted wet of the optimum shrink more because the soil particles
in the dispersed structure have nearly parallel orientation of particles
and can pack more efficiently.
• Compressibility. The flocculated structure developed on the dry side of
the optimum offers greater resistance to compression than the
dispersed structure on the wet side. Consequently, the soils on the dry
side are less compressible.
• However, the compressibility of the soil depends upon a number of
other factors. In increases with an increase in the degree of saturation.
The compressibility of a soil compacted on the wet side of the optimum
is also influenced by the method of compaction. If the compaction is of
kneading or impact type, it creates a more dispersed structure with a
corresponding increase in the compressibility. If the compaction causes
very large stresses, the compressibility increases due to breakdown of
the structure and greater orientation of the particles.
• Stress-Strain relationship. The soils compacted dry of the
optimum have a steeper stress-strain curve than those on the
wet side.The modulus of elasticity for the soils compacted dry
of the optimum is therefore high. Such soils have brittle
failure like dense sands or over consolidated clays.

The soils compacted wet of the optimum have relatively

flatter stress-strain curve and a corresponding lower value
of the modulus of elasticity. The failure in this case occurs
at a large strain and is of plastic type.
Shear Strength. In general, at a given water
content, the shear strength of the soil increases
with an inecrease in the compactive effort till a
critical degree of saturation is reached. with further
increase in the compactive effort, the shear
strength decreases. The shear strength of the
compacted soils depends upon the soil type, the
moulded water content, drainage conditions, the
method of compaction, etc. The shear strength of
the compacted silts and clays at the moulded water
content and at a water content when fully
saturated are quite different, as discussed below.
• Shear strength at moulded water content. Two
samples are compacted to the same dry density, one
dry of the optimum and the other way of the optimum,
and tested for shear strength. The Mohr-Coulomb
failure envelopes. The soils compacted dry of the
optimum have a higher shear strength at low strains.
However, at large strains the flocculated structure for the
soil on the dry side is broken and the ultimate strength is
approximately equal for both the samples.On the wet
wide, the shear strength is further reduced if the
compaction by kneading action. It causes a greater
orientation towards a dispersed structure than that by
static compaction methods.
• Shear strength after saturation. Two samples are
compacted to the same dry density, one dry of the optimum
and the other wet of the optimum, and then soaked in
water, without any volume change, to have full saturation.
The samples are then tested for shear strength. The samples
compacted dry of the optimum show greater strength.
hower, the difference in the strength of the two simples is
much smaller than that prior to saturation. The difference in
the water deficiency of the two samples and the consequent
pore water tension is greatly reduced after saturation.
• If swelling is permitted during saturation, the difference in
strength of the two samples is further reduced. In some
cases, the sample compacted on the wet side may exhibit
even more strength.
METHODS OF COMPACTION USED IN FIELD
• Several methods are used for compaction of soil in filed. The
choice of method will depend upon the soil type, the
maximum dry density required, and economic consideration.
Some of the more commonly used conventional methods are
discussed below. Other methods of compaction, such as
vibroflotation, pounding.
• Tampers. A hand-operated tamper (or rammer) consists of a
block of iron (or stone), about 3 to 5 kg in mass, attached to a
wooden rod. The tamper is lifted for about 0.30m and
dropped on the soil to be compacted. A mechanical rammer is
operated by compressed air or gasoline power. It is much
heavier, about 30 to 150 kg. Mechanical rammers have been
used upto a mass of 1000 kg in some special cases.
Tampers are used to compact soils adjacent to existing
structures or confined areas, such as trenches and behind
the bridge abutments, where other methods of compaction
cannot be used. Owing to very low output tampers are not
economical where large quanitites of soils are involved.
Tampers can be used for all typesof soils.
• Rollers. Rollers of different types are used for compaction
of soils.The compaction depends following factors.
i. Contact Pressure. In general, the compaction increases
with an increase in the contact pressure. For a smooth-
wheel roller, the contact pressure depends upon the
load per unit width and the diameter of the roller.
ii. Number of passes. The compaction of a soil with an
increase in the number of passes made. However,
beyond a certain limit, the increase in the density with
an increase in the number of passes in not appreciable.
From economy consideration, the number of passes is
generally restricted to a reasonable limit between 5 to
15.
iii. Layer thickness. The compaction of a soil increases with
a decreases in the thickness of the layer. However, for
economy consideration, the thickness is rarely kept less
than 15 cm.
iv. Speed of roller. The compaction depends upon the
speed of the roller. The speed should be so adjusted
that the maximum effect is achieved.
Types of Rollers
1. Smooth-Wheel Rollers. A smooth-wheel roller generally consits
of three wheels; two large wheels in the rare and one small wheel
in the front. A tandem type smooth- wheel roller consists of only
two drums; one in the rear and one in the front. The mass of a
smooth - wheel roller generally varies between 2 to15 Mg. These
rollers are operated by internal combustion engines.smooth-
wheel rollers are useful for finishing operations after compaction
of fills and for compacting granular base courses of highways.
These are not effective for compaction of deep layers of soils, as
the resulting compaction pressures induced are low. For the,
These rollers also cause stratification in deep layers due to non-
uniform compaction. These rollers are generally used to seal the
surface of the fill at the end of day's work to provide a smooth
surface to quickly drain off any rain water.
2. Pneumatic tyred rollers. Pneumatic-tyred rollers use compressed air
to develop the required inflation pressure. The contact pressure
depends upon the area of contact and the inflation pressure. The
roller generally consists of 9 to 11 wheels fixed on two axles, with the
pneumatic tyres so spaced that a complete coverage is obtained with
each pass of the roller. The rollers are available in a wide range of
load sizes. The gross mass of the roller varies between 5 to 200 Mg.
However, the rollers with mass more than 50 Mg are rarely used. The
inflation pressure varies between 200 to1000 kN/m 2.
• The rollers are available as a self-propelled unit as well as a towed
unit.
• The roller compacts the soil primarily by kneading action. These rollers
are effective for compacting cohesive as well as cohesionless soils.
These rollers are the best type of equipment for general use. Light
rollers (20Mg) are effective for compacting soil layers of small
thickness upto 15cm, Whereas heavy rollers are useful for layers of
thickness upto 30cm.
• Sometimes, the rollers are designed to produce a wobble
effect, due to which a slightly weaving path is tracked. This
improves the compaction of the soil. Pneumatic-tyred rollers
are generally provided with a tracked. This improves the
compaction of the soil. Pneumatic-tyred rollers are generally
provided with a weight box or ballast box. The box can be
filled with ballast to increase the weight of the roller.
3. Sheep-foot rollers. In ancient time before the advent of the
rollers, it was usual practice to pass a flock of sheep on the
newly formed soil fill to cause its compaction. The same
principle is used in the design of sheep-foot rollers.
• The sheep-foot roller consists of a hollow drum with a
large number of small projections (known as feet) on its
surface. These projections penetrate the soil layers
during the rolling operations and cause compaction. The
drums are mounted on a steel frame. The drum can be
filled with water or ballast to increase the mass. Sheep-
foot rollers are available both as a self- propelled unit
and a towed unit. As rolling is done, most of the weight
of the roller is imposed through the projections on the
soil. The contact pressure is generally between 700 to
4200 KN/m2. The roller may sink into the soil if the
contact pressure is more than the bearing capacity of the
soil.
•
• The sheep-foot rollers are ideally suited for compaction of
cohesive soils. The rollers compact the soil by a combination
of tamping and kneading action. When the roller is passed for
the first time, the projections penetrate the soil layer and the
lower portion of the layer is compacted. In successive passes,
compaction is obtained in the middle and the top portion of
the layer. This continually rising effect of the compaction
called walking-out of the roller.

• The depth of layer that can be compacted depends upon the

length of the projections and the weight of the roller. Small
rollers can compact layers of 15 cm thickness, whereas heavy
rollers can compact layers of 30 cm thickness. In general, the
thickness of the layer compacted is kept not more than 5 cm
greater than the length of the projection.
3. Vibratory compactors. In vibratory compactors, vibrations are
induced in the soil during compaction.
• The compactors are available in a variety of forms. When the
vibrator is mounted on a drum, it is called a vibratory roller. These
rollers are available both as pneumatic type and the smooth-
wheel type. In a smooth-wheel type, a separate motor drives an
arrangement of eccentric weights to create high frequency, low
amplitude, up-and-down oscillations of the drum. These rollers
are suitable for compacting granular soils, with no fines, in layers
upto 1 m thickness. However, if there is appreciable percentage of
fines, the thickness has to be reduced. In a pneumatic-tyred
vibratory compactor, a separate vibrating unit is attached to the
wheel axle. The ballast box is suspended separately from the axle
so that it does not vibrate. These compactors are suitable for
compacting granular soils with thickness of layer of about 30 cm.
• Another form of a vibratory compactor is a
vibrating plate compactor. In this system, there are
a number of small plates, each plate is operated by
a separate, vibrating unit. Hand- operated vibrating
plates are also available. The effect of the vibrating
plates is limited to small depths. Their main use is
to impact granular base courses for highways and
runways where the thickness of layers is stall.

• Vibratory compactors can compact the granular

soils to a very high maximum dry density.
COMPACTION CONTROL
• The laboratory compaction tests give the
optimum water content and the maximum dry
density. In the field, during the compaction of the
soils, it is essential to check the dry density and
the water content in order to effect proper quality
control. The geotechnical engineer has to ensure
that the specified amount of compaction and the
desired dry densities are achieved.
• Compaction control is done by measuring the dry
density and the water content of the compacted
soil in the field.
(1) Dry Density. The dry density is measured using the methods
core-cutter method and the sand replacement method are
commonly used. The nuclear methods are occasionally used as
these are non-destructive and require no physical or chemical
processing of the soil and are very convenient.
(2) Water Content. The oven-drying method of the
determination of the water content takes 24 hours.
This method, though very accurate, cannot be used for
controlling construction, as the soil layer from which the sample
was taken would be buried by the time the water content is
known. Therefore, the basic requirement is that the method
used be such that it gives quick results. In the field, the water
content is generally determined using the sand-bath method,
alcohol method or the calcium carbide method. The nuclear
methods are also being used increasingly.
The water content can also be determined indirectly using a
Proctor needle (also known as plasticity needle). The Proctor
needle consists of a rod attached to a spring-loaded plunger.
The stem of the plunger is marked to read the resistance in
newton. A sliding ring on the stem indicates the maximum
resistance recorded during the test.
• The needle-shank has graduations to indicate the depth of
penetration. The equipment is provided with a series of
needle points of different cross-sectional areas ( 0.2, 0.50,
1.0 and 2.5 cm2) to obtain a wide range of the penetration
resistance. For cohesive soils, the needle points of larger
CROSS-sectional areas are required and for cohesionless
soil, those of smaller CROSS- sectional areas are used. The
needle point used should be such that it is neither too
small for accurate measurement nor too large.
• A suitable needle point is selected and screwed to the
needle shank. After the soil has been compacted at a
given water content in the compaction test in the
laboratory, the Proctor needle is forced 2.5 cm into it at
the rate of about 1.25 cm/sec.
• The maximum force used is found from the compression of the
spring. From the known area of the needle point, the penetration
resistance per unit area is computed. A number of such
measurements are made in the laboratory during the compaction
test, and a calibration curve is obtained between the penetration
resistance (R) and the water content. It is found that for a given
degree of compaction, the penetration resistance decreases with an
increase in water content.
• To determine the water content of the compacted soil in the field,
the soil is compacted in the standard compaction mould in the field
in the same manner as was used during the calibration of the needle.
The penetration resistance of the compacted soil is measured. The
moisture content is then obtained for the calibration curve.
• This method of the determination of the water content is quiet rapid
and reliable for fine- grained soils. However, it does not give
accurate results for cohesionless soils and for soils having a large
percentage of gravels and stone pieces.
VIBROFLOTATION METHOD
• Vibroflotation is used for compacting thick deposits of loose,
sandy soils upto 30 m depth. A vibroflotation consists of a
cylindrical tube, about 2 m diameter, fitted with water jets at
the top and the bottom. It contains a rotating eccentric mass
which develops a horizontal vibratory motion.
• The vibroflot is sunk into the loose soil upto the desired depth
using the lower water jet . As water comes out of the jet, it
creates a momentary quick condition ahead of the vibroflot
due to which the shear strength of the soil is reduced. The
vibroflot settles due to its own mass.
• When the desired Depth has been reached, the vibrator is
activated. The vibroflot then vibrates laterally and causes the
compaction of the soil in the horizontal direction to a radius
of about 1.5. m.
• The water from the lower jet is transferred to the top jet
and the pressure is reduced so that its enough to carry the
sand poured at the top to the bottom of the hole. Vibration
continues as the vibroflot is slowly raised to the surface.
Additional sand is continually dropped into the space
around the vibroflot. By raising the vibroflot in stages and
simultaneously backfilling, the entire depth soil is
compacted.

• The spacing of the holes is usually kept between 2 to 3 m on

a grid pattern. The relative density achieved for the sandy
soils is 70% or more. In soft, cohesive soils, vibroflotation is
not effective. For cohesive soils, it can be used to form a
sand pile to reinforce the deposit and to accelerate
consolidation and thus improve its engineering properties.
TERRA PROBE METHOD
• Terra probe method in many respects is similar to the
vibroflotation method. The terra probe consists an open-
ended pipe, about 75 cm diameter. It is provided with a
vibratory pile drive. The vibratory pile drive when activated
gives vertical vibrations o the terra probe and it goes down.
After reaching the desired depth the terra probe is gradua lly
raised upward while the vibrodriver continues to operate.
Thus, the soil within and around the terror probe is densified.
• The terra probe method has been successfully used upto
depth of 20 m. The spacing of the holes usually kept about 1.5
m. Saturated soil conditions are ideal for the success of the
method. For the sites when the water table is deep, water jets
are fitted to the terra probe to assist the penetration and
densification of the soil
• The terra probe method is considerably faster than the
vibroflotation method. As it does not require backfilling of sand,
it can even be used at offshore locations. However, the method is
less effective than vibroflotation method. In the terra probe, the
zone of influence is considerably smaller and the relative density
achieved is also lower.
COMPACTION BY POUNDING
• To densify large deposits of loose, sandy soils, the pounding
method has also been recently used. The method is also known
as heavy tamping, dynamic compaction or high-energy
compaction. Pounding is dense by dropping a heavy mass (2 to
50 Mg) from a large height (7 to 35 m) on the ground surface.
The actual mass and the height are selected depending upon the
crane available and the depth of the soil deposit. A closely
spaced grid pattern is selected for the pounding locations. At
each location, 5 to 10 pounding are given
• The pounding method is used to compact the soil deposits to a
great depth. It is very effective for densifying loose sandy
deposits. Recently, the method has been successfully used to
compact fine-grained soil deposits as well. The depth (D) in
metres upto which the method is effective can be determined
from the following relation:
D = C √MH
• where C = coefficient (0.5 to 0.75), M = mass (Mg), H = height of
drop (m).
• While using the pounding method, care shall be taken that
harmful vibrations are not transferred to the adjacent buildings.
The radius of influence (R) in metres beyond which no harmful
vibrations are transmitted can be determined from the relation.
R= 130√MH
• where M = mass (Mg), and H = height of drop (m).
COMPACTION BY EXPLOSIVES
• Buried explosives are sometimes used to density cohesionless
soils. The shock wave and vibrations produced by explosives
are somewhat similar to that produced by vibratory,
compaction equipment. The method is quite effective when
the cohesionless soil is fully saturated. The shock waves Cause
liquifications of sand, which is followed by densification. In
partially saturated cohesionless soils, coppressive dresses
develop due to capillary action and prevent the soil particles
from taking closer positions. The method is not effective for
partially saturated soils.
• The depth upto which the blast is effective is limited to about 25
m. The upper most zone of the Soil upto a depth of about 1m
gets displaced in a random manner and is, therefore, not
properly densified. This zone should be compacted using the
conventional methods by rollers.
• Explosives charges usually consist of about 60% dynamite and
30% special gelatin dynamite and ammonite. The charges are
placed at two-thirds the thickness of the stratum to be densified.
The spacing of the explosive points is kept between 3 to 8 m.
Three to five blasts are generally required at each location.
• The radius of influence (R) of compaction can be determined
using the relation
R= (M/C)1/3
• where R = radius of influence (m), M = mass of charge (kg), C
constant ( = 0.04 for 60% dynamite)
PRECOMPRESSION
• precompression improves the properties of the cohesive soils. In
this method, the soil is preloaded before the application of the
design loads. Preloading causes settlement before actual
construction begins. The preload is generally is the form of an earth
fill which is left in place for a long time so as to induce the required
settlement. After the required compression has been achieved, the
preload is removed prior to the construction. A monitoring system
consisting of settlement plates and piezometers may be used to
check the progress of settlement.
• The precompression method is effective for compaction of silts,
clays, organic soils and sanitary landfills. The preload must be
carefully selected so as not to cause shear failures in the soil. The
stability of the soil deposit under preload should be checked.
Sufficient soil data should be collected to predict the rate and
magnitude of the settlement. Sometimes, vertical sand drains are
used to decrease the time of settlement.
COMPACTION PILES
• Cohesionless soils can be densified by
constructing compaction piles. A capped, pipe
pile is driven into the soil. The soil surrounding
the pile is compacted due to vibrations caused
during driving. The pile is then extracted and
the hole formed is backfilled with sand. Thus
the compaction pile is formed.
SUITABILITY OF VARIOUS METHODS OF COMPACTION
• The suitability criteria of various methods of compaction can be
summarised as under:
• (1) Cohesionless Soils only. Smooth-wheel rollers are suitable for
compacting layers of small thickness in base courses. Vibratory rollers
are effective for compacting deposits of large thickness.

• (2) Cohesive Soils only: Sheep-foot rollers are suitable for compaction of
cohesive soils.

• (3) Both cohesionless and cohesive soils. The following methods are
universal. These can be used for both cohesionless soils and cohesive
soils.
• (i)Tampers are effective for compacting soils in a confined space of all
types.
• (ii)Pneumatic-tyred rollers are extremely useful for compacting all types
of soils.