Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology, Greater Noida

UNIT I
Introduction of Regular Languages and
Finite Automata

Unit: I

Formal Languages & Automata

Ms. Anushka Shivhare
Theory (ACSBS-306)
Assistant Professor
Course Details B.Tech
(B Tech 3rd Sem) CSDS

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1
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 Evaluation Scheme & Syllabus
B.Tech Computer Science and Business System (CSBS) Second Year
(Effective from the Session: 2021-22)
SEMESTER-III

Sl. Subject Periods Evaluation Schemes End

No. Codes Subject Name Semester Total Credit
L T P CT TA TOTAL PS TE PE

WEEKS COMPULSORY INDUCTION PROGRAM

1 ACSBS0306 Formal Language & Automata 3 0 0 30 20 50 100 150 3
Theory
2 ACSBS0303 Computer Organization & 3 0 0 30 20 50 100 150 3
Architecture
3 ACSBS0302 Object Oriented Programming 3 0 0 30 20 50 100 150 3
4 ACSBS0301 Computational Statistics 3 0 0 30 20 50 100 150 3
5 ACSBS0304 Software Engineering 3 0 0 30 20 50 100 150 3
6 ACSBS0305 Financial Management 2 0 0 30 20 50 100 150 2
7 ACSBS0353 Computer Organization & 0 0 2 25 25 50 1
Architecture Lab
8 ACSBS0352 Object Oriented Programming 0 0 2 25 25 50 1
Lab
9 ACSBS0351 Computational Statistics Lab 0 0 2 25 25 50 1
10 ACSBS0354 Software Engineering Lab 0 0 2 25 25 50 1
11 ANC0303 Indian Constitution 2 0 0 30 20 50 50 100 0
(Non- Credit)*
12 MOOCs (For B.Tech. Hons.
Degree)
GRAND TOTAL 1100 21

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 Subject Syllabus

B. TECH. SECOND YEAR (CSBS) 3rd Semester

Course Code ACSBS -0306 L T P Credits

Course title FORMAL LANGUAGE & AUTOMATA THEORY 3 0 0 3

Course objective:

To introduce mathematical foundations of computation including automata theory, provide the design concepts of abstract computation
model of finite automata, push down automata and turing Machine and familiarize the notions of algorithm, decidability, complexity,
and computability.
Pre-requisites:

 Discrete Mathematics
 Fundamental of Computer System
Course Contents / Syllabus
UNIT-I Introduction of Regular Languages and Finite Automata 8 Hours
Alphabet, languages and grammars, productions and derivation, Chomsky hierarchy of languages.

Regular expressions and languages, deterministic finite automata (DFA) and equivalence with regular expressions, nondeterministic
finite automata (NFA) and equivalence with DFA, regular grammars and equivalence with finite automata, properties of regular
languages, Kleene’s theorem, pumping lemma for regular languages, Myhill-Nerode theorem and its uses, minimization of finite
automata.
UNIT-II Context-free Languages and Pushdown Automata 8 Hours
Context-free grammars (CFG) and languages (CFL), Chomsky and Greibach Normal Forms, Equivalence with CFG, Parse trees,
Ambiguity in CFG, Pumping lemma for Context-free languages, Deterministic Pushdown Automata, Nondeterministic Pushdown
Automata (PDA), Closure Properties of CFLs.

Context-sensitive languages: Context-sensitive grammars (CSG) and languages, Linear Bounded Automata and Equivalence with
CSG.
UNIT-III Turing Machine 8 Hours
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 The basic model for Turing machines (TM), Turing recognizable (Recursively Enumerable) and Turing- decidable (recursive) Languages and
their closure properties, Variants of Turing machines, Nondeterministic TMs and Equivalence with Deterministic TMs, Unrestricted Grammars
and Equivalence with Turing machines, TM as Enumerators.

UNIT-IV Undecidability 8 Hours

Church-Turing thesis, Universal Turing machine, Universal and diagonalization languages, Reduction between languages and Rice s theorem,
Undecidable problems about languages.
UNIT-V Basic Introduction to Complexity 8 Hours
Introductory ideas on Time complexity of deterministic and nondeterministic Turing machines, P and NP, NP- completeness, Cook’s
Theorem, other NP -Complete problems.
Course outcome: After completion of this course students will be able to:
CO 1 Design and Simplify automata for formal languages and apply K6
closure properties of formal language to construct finite automata for complex problems.

CO 2 Define grammar for context free languages and proving it K5

equivalence with PDA.
CO 3 Construct Turing Machine for recursive and recursive enumerable K6
languages.
CO 4 Identify the decidable and undecidable problems. K4
CO 5 Perform Polynomial time reduction and proving NP- K6
Completeness of basic NP-hard Problem.
Text books:
(1) Introduction to Automata Theory, Languages, and Computation John E. Hopcroft, Rajeev Motwani and Jeffrey D. Ullman.

Reference Books:
(1) Elements of the Theory of Computation, Harry R. Lewis and Christos H. Papadimitriou.
(2) Automata and Computability, Dexter C. Kozen.
(3) Introduction to the Theory of Computation, Michael Sipser.
(4) Introduction to Languages and the Theory of Computation, John Martin.

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 (5) Computers and Intractability: A Guide to the Theory of NP Completeness, M. R. Garey and D. S. Johnson.

Laboratory:

YACC, the parser-generating tool (Chapter 5 of Introduction to Automata Theory, Languages, and Computation John E.
Hopcroft, Rajeev Motwani and Jeffrey D. Ullman.)

Links:

Unit I https://nptel.ac.in/courses/106/104/106104028/Lecture 1 -10, Lecture 16, 17 18, 19

https://nptel.ac.in/courses/113/11111/1003016/
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=%23AutomataTheory

Unit II https://nptel.ac.in/courses/106/104/106104028/Lecture 11 -15

https://nptel.ac.in/courses/113/11111/1003016/
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=%23AutomataTheory

Unit III https://nptel.ac.in/courses/106/104/106104028/Lecture 20 -30

https://nptel.ac.in/courses/106/106/106106049/
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=%23AutomataTheory

Unit IV https://nptel.ac.in/courses/106/104/106104028/Lecture 31 -33

https://nptel.ac.in/courses/113/11111/1003016/
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=%23AutomataTheory

Unit V https://nptel.ac.in/courses/106/104/106104028/Lecture 34-42

https://nptel.ac.in/courses/113/11111/1003016/
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=%23AutomataTheory

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 Branch Wise Applications

• It can compute man-made problems as well as

natural phenomena.Automata theory has a lot of
applications in real life as well, such that: Lambda
calculus, Combinatory logic, Markov algorithm, and
Register,Natural Language Processing ,Compiler
Design and Lexical analysis and Semantic analysis.
Also, the concept of Formal languages and automata
theory can overlap with other subjects as well.

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 Course Objective

• Introduce concepts in automata theory and theory of computation

• Identify different formal language classes and their relationships

and PDAs.

• Applying the Concept of Turing Machine and LBAs.

• Prove or disprove theorems in automata theory using its properties

• Determine the decidability and intractability of computational

problems and complexity theory.

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 Course Outcome
FORMAL LANGUAGE & AUTOMATA THEORY
(CSBS-0306)
Course Outcome (CO) Bloom’s Knowledge
Level (KL)

At the end of the course, the student will be able to understand

CO 1 Design and Simplify automata for formal languages and K6
apply closure properties of formal language to
construct finite automata for complex problems.
CO 2 Define grammar for context free languages and proving K5
it equivalence with PDA.
CO 3 Construct Turing Machine for recursive and recursive K6
enumerable languages.
CO 4 Identify the decidable and undecidable problems. K4

CO 5 Perform Polynomial time reduction and proving K6

NPCompleteness of basic NP-hard Problem

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 Program Outcomes

Engineering Graduates will be able to Understand:

1. Engineering knowledge
2. Problem analysis
3. Design/development of solutions
4. Conduct investigations of complex
5. Modern tool usage
6. The engineer and society
7. Environment and sustainability
8. Ethics
9. Individual and team work
10. Communication
11. Project management and finance
12. Life-long learning
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 CO-PO and PSO Mapping
CO-PO correlation matrix of Theory of Automata and Formal
Languages (ACSBS0306)
PO PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12
1
CSBS0306.1 2 2 3 3 2 2 - - 2 1 - 3
CSBS0306.2 1 3 2 3 2 2 - 1 1 1 2 2
CSBS0306.3 2 2 3 2 2 2 - 2 2 1 2 3
CSBS0306.4 2 2 2 3 2 2 - 2 2 1 1 3
CSBS0306.5 3 2 2 2 2 2 - 2 1 1 1 2
Average 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2 2 - 1.4 1.6 1 1.2 2.6

Mapping of Program Specific Outcomes and Course Outcomes:

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 End Semester Question Paper Templates (Offline Pattern/Online Pattern)

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 End Semester Question Paper Templates (Offline Pattern/Online Pattern)

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 Prerequisite and Recap

• Brief review of different operations like Union, Intersection,

difference, Complement, Introduction of graph & concept of
equivalence relation & equivalence class

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 Brief Introduction about the Subject with videos

Introduction: Automata theory is the study of abstract machines and automata, as well as
the computational problems that can be solved using them. It is a theory in theoretical
computer science.
Introduction, Finite Automata, Regular Expressions | Video Lectures | Theory of Computation | Mathema
tics | MIT
OpenCourseWare

Unit I
https://nptel.ac.in/courses/106/104/106104028/Lecture 1 -10, Lecture 16, 17 18, 19
https://nptel.ac.in/courses/113/11111/1003016/ https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=%23AutomataTheory
Unit II
https://nptel.ac.in/courses/106/104/106104028/Lecture 11 -15
https://nptel.ac.in/courses/113/11111/1003016/ https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=%23AutomataTheory
Unit III
https://nptel.ac.in/courses/106/104/106104028/Lecture 20 -30
https://nptel.ac.in/courses/106/106/106106049/ https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=%23AutomataTheory
Unit IV
https://nptel.ac.in/courses/106/104/106104028/Lecture 31 -33
https://nptel.ac.in/courses/113/11111/1003016/ https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=%23AutomataTheory
Unit V
https://nptel.ac.in/courses/106/104/106104028/Lecture 34-42
https://nptel.ac.in/courses/113/11111/1003016/ https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=%23AutomataTheory
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 Contents

• Introduction
• Theory of computation
• Basic Definitions
• Deterministic Finite Automata
• DFA Examples
• Non Deterministic Finite Automata
• NDFA Example
• Equivalence of DFA and NDFA
• Minimization of NDFA
• Machines with Output
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 Unit Objective

• To understand the designing of Deterministic Finite Automata.

• To understand the designing of Non deterministic finite automata.
• To understand the Minimization of Finite Automata.
• To understand the designing the Finite automata with output.

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 Unit I Syllabus

•Introduction of Regular Languages and Finite Automata

Alphabet, languages and grammars, productions and
derivation, Chomsky hierarchy of languages. Regular
expressions and languages, deterministic finite automata
(DFA) and equivalence with regular expressions,
nondeterministic finite automata (NFA) and equivalence with
DFA, regular grammars and equivalence with finite
automata, properties of regular languages, Kleene’s theorem,
pumping lemma for regular languages, Myhill-Nerode
theorem and its uses, minimization of finite
automata.Machine with Output and RE to FA and FA to RE.

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 Theory of Computation (CO1)

Prerequisite: Brief review of different operations like Union,

Intersection, difference, Complement, Introduction of graph &
concept of equivalence relation & equivalence class

Objective: To understand the basic definition of Automata

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 Theory of Computation (CO1)

Objective: To understand the basic definition of Automata

• It is a branch of computer science that deals with how effectively a

problem can be solved on a model of computation by using an
algorithm.
Theory of
Computation

Theory of
Computability Complexity
Automata and
Theory Theory
Formal Languages

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 Theory of Computation (CO1)
Objective: To understand the basic definition of Automata

Theory of Automata and Formal Languages :

• It deals with the definition and properties of various mathematical models of
computer.
• Example : Finite Automat, Context Free Grammar, PDA, Turing Machine

Computability Theory:
• It deals with what can and what cannot be computed by model.

Complexity Theory:
• It deals with computable problems based on their hardness.

Purpose of TOC:
• In order to develop formal mathematical model of computations that reflect real
world computers.
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 Basic Definitions:

Symbol:
It is a character.
For Example : a,b,c,…….z
0,1,2,3,4…9
+,-,%,&........ Special characters.

Alphabet:
An alphabet is defined as a finite non empty set of symbols. It is
representd by symbol : Σ
Example: Σ: {0,1} set of binary alphabets.
Σ: {a,b,c,……z} set of all lower case letters.
Σ: {+,-,*,/,……} set of all special characters.

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 Basic Definitions(Continued)

String

Definition − A string is a finite sequence of symbols taken from ∑.

Example − ‘cabcad’ is a valid string on the alphabet set ∑ = {a, b, c, d}

Length of a String

Definition − It is the number of symbols present in a string. (Denoted by |S|).

• Examples −
– If S = ‘cabcad’, |S|= 6
– If |S|= 0, it is called an empty string (Denoted by λ or ε)

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 Basic Definitions (Continued)

Kleene Star
• Definition − The Kleene star, ∑*, is a unary operator on a set of symbols
or strings, ∑, that gives the infinite set of all possible strings of all possible
lengths over ∑ including λ.
• Representation − ∑* = ∑0 ∪ ∑1 ∪ ∑2 ∪……. where ∑p is the set of all
possible strings of length p.
• Example − If ∑ = {a, b}, ∑* = {λ, a, b, aa, ab, ba, bb,………..}

Kleene Closure / Plus

• Definition − The set ∑+ is the infinite set of all possible strings of all
possible lengths over ∑ excluding λ.
• Representation − ∑+ = ∑1 ∪ ∑2 ∪ ∑3 ∪…….
• ∑+ = ∑* − { λ }
• Example − If ∑ = { a, b } , ∑+ = { a, b, aa, ab, ba, bb,………..}

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 Basic Definitions (Continued)

Language

• Definition − A language is a subset of ∑* for some alphabet ∑. It can be

finite or infinite.
• Example − If the language takes all possible strings of length 2 over ∑ = {a,
b}, then L = { ab, aa, ba, bb }

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 Automata

An automaton with a finite number of states is called a Finite Automaton

(FA) or Finite State Machine (FSM).

Formal definition of a Finite Automaton

An automaton can be represented by a 5-tuple (Q, ∑, δ, q0, F), where −

• Q is a finite set of states.
• ∑ is a finite set of symbols, called the alphabet of the automaton.
• δ is the transition function.
• q0 is the initial state from where any input is processed (q0 ∈ Q).
• F is a set of final state/states of Q (F ⊆ Q).

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 Deterministic Finite Automaton (DFA)

Recap: In previous slides we have learned about basic definitions used

in Automata.

Prerequisite: Knowledge about Alphabet, string and language.

Objective: To understand the formal mathematical definition of DFA

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 Deterministic Finite Automaton (DFA)

Objective: To understand the formal mathematical definition of DFA

Formal Definition of a DFA

• A DFA can be represented by a 5-tuple (Q, ∑, δ, q0, F) where −

• Q is a finite set of states.
• ∑ is a finite set of symbols called the alphabet.
• δ is the transition function where δ: Q × ∑ → Q
• q0 is the initial state from where any input is processed (q0 ∈ Q).
• F is a set of final state/states of Q (F ⊆ Q).

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 Graphical Representation of a DFA (CO1)

A DFA is represented by digraphs called state diagram.

•The vertices represent the states.

•The arcs labeled with an input alphabet show the transitions.
•The initial state is denoted by an empty single incoming arc.
•The final state is indicated by double circles.

Example
Let a deterministic finite automaton be →
•Q = {a, b, c},
•∑ = {0, 1},
•q0 = {a},
•F = {c},

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 Graphical Representation of a DFA

Its graphical representation would be as follows −

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 DFA - Examples

1. Design a DFA that accepts “a”, over an alphabet ∑={a}

a
q0 q1

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 DFA - Examples

2. Design a DFA that accepts 0 or more ‘a’

q0

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 DFA - Examples

3. Design a DFA over an alphabet ∑={a}, which accepts those strings

which starts with 1 and ends with 0.

1 0

1 0
q0 q1 q2

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 DFA - Examples

4. Draw a DFA for following language over an alphabet {a,b}, L={all

strings starting with abb}

a,b

a b b
q0 q1 q2 q3

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 DFA - Examples

5. Draw a DFA for following language over an alphabet {a,b}, L={all

strings with abb as substring}

b a
a,b

a b b
q0 q1 q2 q3

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 DFA - Examples

6. Draw a DFA for following language over an alphabet {a,b}, L={all

strings ending with abb}

b a
a a,b

a b b
q0 q1 q2 q3

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 DFA - Examples

7. Design a DFA over an alphabet {a,b} such that every string

accepted must be of length:
• |w|=2(mod3)

R=0
a,b
q0 q1 R=1

a,b a,b

q2 R=2

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 Non – Deterministic Finite Automata (CO1)

Recap: Learn the designing of DFA

Prerequisite: Understanding of DFA

Objective: To understand the mathematical definition of NDFA

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 Non – Deterministic Finite Automata (CO1)

Objective: To understand the mathematical definition of NDFA

Formal Definition of an NDFA

• An NDFA can be represented by a 5-tuple (Q, ∑, δ, q0, F) where −

• Q is a finite set of states.
• ∑ is a finite set of symbols called the alphabets.
• δ is the transition function where δ: Q × ∑ → 2Q
(Here the power set of Q (2Q) has been taken because in case of
NDFA, from a state, transition can occur to any combination of Q
states)
• q0 is the initial state from where any input is processed (q0 ∈ Q).
• F is a set of final state/states of Q (F ⊆ Q).

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 Non – Deterministic Finite Automata

• An NDFA is represented by digraphs called state diagram.

• The vertices represent the states.
• The arcs labeled with an input alphabet show the transitions.
• The initial state is denoted by an empty single incoming arc.
• The final state is indicated by double circles.

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 NDFA – EXAMPLE

1. Draw a NDFA to accept strings containing the substring 0101

0,1 0,1
0 1 0 1
q0 q1 q2 q3 q4

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 THE EQUIVALENCE OF DFA AND NDFA

• Construct a DFA equivalent of following NDFA:

δ/Σ a b
→q0 q0,q1 q0
q1 q2 q1
q2 q3 q3
*q3 q2

δ/Σ a b
[→q0] [q0,q1] [q0]
[q0,q1] [q0,q1,q2] [q0,q1]
[q0,q1,q2] *[q0,q1,q2,q3] *[q0,q1,q3]
*[q0,q1,q3] [q0,q1,q2] [q0,q1,q2]
*[q0,q1,q2,q3] *[q0,q1,q2,q3] *[q0,q1,q2,q3]

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 MINIMIZATION OF DFA (CO1)

Minimize the given DFA-

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 MINIMIZATION OF DFA
Solution-
Step-01:
The given DFA contains no dead states and inaccessible states.

Step-02:
Draw a state transition table-

a b
→q0 q1 q2
q1 q1 q3
q2 q1 q2
q3 q1 *q4
*q4 q1 q2

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 MINIMIZATION OF DFA

Step-03:

Now using Equivalence Theorem, we have-

• P0 = { q0 , q1 , q2 , q3 } { q4 }
• P1 = { q0 , q1 , q2 } { q3 } { q4 }
• P2 = { q0 , q2 } { q1 } { q3 } { q4 }
• P3 = { q0 , q2 } { q1 } { q3 } { q4 }

• Since P3 = P2, so we stop.

• From P3, we infer that states q0 and q2 are equivalent and can be merged
together.
• So, Our minimal DFA is

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 MINIMIZATION OF DFA (CO1)

So after minimization the final

DFA will be Like:

Initial DFA

Final DFA

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 Finite Automata with Outputs (CO1)

Recap: Learn about DFA, NDFA and their designing, and

minimization and interconversions.

Prerequisite: Knowledge about DFA, NDFA .

Objective: To understand the Finite Automata Machines which gives

output.

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 Finite Automata with Outputs (CO1)
Moore Machine Mealy Machine
• It is consists of 6 Touples • It is consists of 6 Touples
• Q-Finite set of states • Q-Finite set of states
• Σ-i/p alphabet • Σ-i/p alphabet
• δ-Transition Function • δ-Transition Function
(λ : Q×Σ→Q) (λ :Q×Σ→ ∆)
• q0-initial state • q0-initial state
• ∆-o/p alphabet • ∆-o/p alphabet
• λ-o/p function • λ -o/p function

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 Moore machine

• Construct a Moore machine that takes set of all strings over

alphabet {a,b} as i/p and prints 1 as o/p for every string ending
with ‘baa’ as substring.

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 Mealy Machine
• Construct a Mealy machine for 1’s compliment

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 Moore to Mealy conversion

Given Moore Machine Mealy Machine after conversion

Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RBDE-vO7Ux0

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 Mealy to Moore Conversion
Given Mealy
Machine

Given Mealy Moore Machine after

Machine Moore Machine after Conversion
Conversion

Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vcNRb2cj1GI

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 Links and Online Courses Details

Youtube/other Video Links

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hl5jNAXcW18
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-aIRqNnUvEg&list=PL85CF9F4A047C
7BF7

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 Introduction (CO1)

Objective: To understand the Regular Expression

– A regular expression is used to specify a language, and it does so

precisely.
– Regular expressions are very intuitive.
– Regular expressions are very useful in a variety of contexts.
– Given a regular expression, an NFA-ε can be constructed from it
automatically.
– Thus, so can an NFA be constructed, and a DFA, and a
corresponding program, all automatically!

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 Operations (CO1)

• Concatenation:
– x = 010
– y = 1101
– xy = 010 1101

– Language Concatenation: L1L2 = {xy | x is in L1 and y is in L2}

– L1 = {01, 00}
– L2 = {11, 010}
– L1L2 = {01 11, 01 010, 00 11, 00 010}

• Language Union:
– L1 = {01, 00}
– L2 = {01, 11, 010}
– L1 U L2 = {01, 00, 11, 010}

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 Operations (CO1)

• Let L, L1, L2 be subsets of Σ*

• Concatenation: L1L2 = {xy | x is in L1 and y is in L2}

• Concatenating a language with itself: L0 = {ε}

Li = LLi-1, for all i >= 1

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 Kleene closure

Say, L, or L1 ={a, abc, ba}, on Σ ={a,b,c}

Then, L2 = {aa, aabc, aba, abca, abcabc, abcba, baa, baabc, baba}

L3= {a, abc, ba}

…..

But, L0 = {ε}

Kleene closure of L, L* = {ε, L1, L2, L3, . . .}

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 Operations

• Let L, L1, L2 be subsets of Σ*

• Concatenation: L1L2 = {xy | x is in L1 and y is in L2}

• Union is set union of L1 and L2

• Kleene Closure: L* = Li = L0 U L1 U L2 U…

• Positive Closure: L+ = Li = L1 U L2 U…

• Question: Does L+ contain ε?

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 Definition of a Regular Expression

• Let Σ be an alphabet. The regular expressions over Σ are:

– Ø Represents the empty set { }

– ε Represents the set {ε}
– a Represents the set {a}, one string of length 1, for any
symbol a in Σ

Let r and s be regular expressions that represent the sets R and S, respectively.

– r+s Represents the set R U S (precedence 3)

– rs Represents the set RS (precedence level 2)
– r* Represents the set R* (highest precedence,
level 1)
– (r) Represents the set R (not an operator, rather provides
precedence)

• If r is a regular expression, then L(r) is used to denote the corresponding language.

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 Formal Definition of Regular Expressions

The set of regular expression is defined by following rules:

• Every letter of Σ can be made into regular expression. Null string, ɛ
itself is a regular expression.
• If r1 and r2 are regular expression then :
• (r1)
• r1·r2
• r1+r2
• r1*
• r1+ are also regular.
• Nothing else is a regular.

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 Examples related to Regular Expressions
1. Write a regular expression of language which contains string such
that it contains at least one ‘a’ and at least one ‘b’ over an alphabet
{a,b,c}.

• (a+b+c)*a(a+b+c)*b(a+b+c)*+(a+b+c)*b(a+b+c)*a(a+b+c)*

2. The set of all strings with even number of a’s followed by an odd
number of b’s.

• (aa)*(bb)*b

3. The set of all strings over {a,b} that has at least one pair of
consecutive a’s.
• (a+b)*aa(a+b)*
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 Examples (CO1)
4. The set of all strings beginning with an ‘a’ or ‘c’ then followed by
some number of b’s.

• (a+c)b*

5. The set of all words ending with either ‘bb’ or single ‘a’.

• (a+b)*(a+bb)

6. Length of all strings whose length is exactly 2.

• (a+b)(a+b)

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 Examples

7. Length of all strings should be at least 2:

• (a+b)(a+b)(a+b)*

8. Length of all strings should be at most 2:

• (a+b+ɛ)(a+b+ɛ)

9. All possible strings whose length is even:

• ((a+b)(a+b))*

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 Examples

10. All possible strings whose length is odd:

• ((a+b)(a+b))*(a+b)

11. All strings whose length is divisible by 3:

• ((a+b)(a+b)(a+b))*

12. All strings whose length is 2(mod 3):

• ((a+b)(a+b)(a+b))*(a+b)(a+b)

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 Identities of Regular Expression (CO1)

Recap: we have learned about the basic definition of Regular

expressions.

Prerequisite: Basic knowledge of Regular Expressions.

Objective: To understand the mathematical formulation of RE.

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 Identities of Regular Expression (CO1)
Objective: To understand the mathematical formulation of RE.

1. Øu = uØ = Ø Like multiplying by 0
2. εu = uε = u Like multiplying by 1
3. Ø* = ε L* = Li = L0 U L1 U L2 U…
4. ε* = ε = {ε}
5. u+v = v+u
6. u+Ø=u
7. u+u=u
8. u* = (u*)*
9. u(v+w) = uv+uw [which operation is hidden before
parenthesis?]
10. (u+v)w = uw+vw
11. (uv)*u = u(vu)* [note: you have to have a single u, at start
or end]

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 Regular Expressions to Finite Automata

• Φ =

• ɛ = ɛ

• a = a
q0 q1

• a + b= a,b
q0 q1

• a·b = a b
q0 q1 q2

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 Regular Expressions to Finite Automata
ɛ

ɛ a ɛ
• a* = q0 q1 q2 q3
ɛ

b
• ab* = a
q0 q1

a
• ab* =
q1 q0

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 Regular Expressions to Finite Automata (EXAMPLES)

Q: Convert following RE to FA: (0 + 1(10)*)*

SOLUTION:
(0 + 1(10)*)*
• STEP 1: q0 q1

(0 + 1(10)*)*
ɛ ɛ
• STEP 2: q0 q1 q2

1
q3 (10)*
• STEP 3: ɛ ɛ
q0 q1 q2

0
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 Regular Expressions to Finite Automata
(EXAMPLES)
• STEP 4
ɛ 0
q3

1 q4
q5

ɛ 1
ɛ ɛ
q0 q1 q2

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 Regular Expressions to Finite Automata
(EXAMPLES)
Q: Convert following RE to FA: 0·1·[(10* + 111)* + 0]* · 1
1
SOLUTION: 0

ɛ 1 q6 q7
q5

1 q4 1
ɛ ɛ
0 1 1
q0 q1 q2 q3

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 Finite Automata to Regular Expressions

Recap: Understand about the Regular Expressions and their identities.

Prerequisite: Basic knowledge of Regular expressions and Finite

Automata.

Objective: To understand the relationship between Finite Automata

and RE.

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 Finite Automata to Regular Expressions
Objective: To understand the relationship between Finite Automata
and RE

There are two methods for conversion of Finite Automata to Regular

Expressions :

1. Through state / loop elimination Method

2. Arden’s Theorem

In State / loop elimination method consists of :

1. State elimination method
2. Generic One State Loop elimination Method
3. Generic Two State Loop elimination Method

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 State Elimination Process

a b
q0 q1 q2

a.b
q0 q2

This can be achieved by eliminating state q1

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 Generic One State Machine

q5 R*

This means that loop present in the state is represented by Kleene star

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 Generic Two State Machine

CASE 1:
R1 R3 R2

q0 q1

R4
R1+R3R2*R4 R2

R3
q0 q1

(R1+R3R2*R4)*R3R2*

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 Generic Two State Machine

CASE 2:
R1 R3 R2

q0 q1

R4
R1 R2+R4R1*R3
R3
q0 q1

R1*R3(R2+R4R1*R3)*

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 EXAMPLE

• Solve:
a b b

q0 q1

b
a+bb*b b

b
q0 q1

• (a+bb*b)*bb*

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 Arden's Theorem

Recap: We have covered basics about regular expressions, Identities of

RE, then inter conversion of RE to FA.

Prerequisite: Basic knowledge of Finite Automata and recursion.

Objective: To understand the Arden’s Theorem.

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 Arden's Theorem
Objective: To understand the Arden’s Theorem

Statement −
• Let P and Q be two regular expressions.
• If P does not contain null string, then R = Q + RP has a unique solution that is R =
QP*

Proof −
• R = Q + (Q + RP)P [After putting the value R = Q + RP]
• = Q + QP + RPP
• When we put the value of R recursively again and again, we get the following
equation −
• R = Q + QP + QP2 + QP3…..
• R = Q (ε + P + P2 + P3 + …. )
• R = QP* [As P* represents (ε + P + P2 + P3 + ….) ]
• Hence, proved.

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 Problem of Arden’s Theorem

• Construct a regular expression corresponding to the automata given

below −

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 Problem of Arden’s Theorem
• Solution:
Here the initial state and final state is q1.
The equations for the three states q1, q2, and q3 are as follows −
q1 = q1a + q3a + ε (ε move is because q1 is the initial state0
q2 = q1b + q2b + q3b
q3 = q2a
Now, we will solve these three equations −
q2 = q1b + q2b + q3b
= q1b + q2b + (q2a)b (Substituting value of q3)
= q1b + q2(b + ab)
= q1b (b + ab)* (Applying Arden’s Theorem)
q1 = q1a + q3a + ε
= q1a + q2aa + ε (Substituting value of q3)
= q1a + q1b(b + ab*)aa + ε (Substituting value of q2)
= q1(a + b(b + ab)*aa) + ε
= ε (a+ b(b + ab)*aa)*
= (a + b(b + ab)*aa)*
Hence, the regular expression is (a + b(b + ab)*aa)*.

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 Pumping Lemma

Recap: Till now we have studied RE, Identities of RE, interconversions of RE

and FA, and Arden’s Theorem.

Prerequisite: Basic understanding of finite automata and mathematical

induction.

Objective: To understand the Pumping Lemma.

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 Pumping Lemma
Objective: To understand the Pumping Lemma
Theorem
Let L be a regular language. Then there exists a constant ‘c’ such that for
every string w in L −
• |w| ≥ c
We can break w into three strings, w = xyz, such that −
• |y| > 0
• |xy| ≤ c
For all k ≥ 0, the string xykz is also in L.

Applications of Pumping Lemma

• Pumping Lemma is to be applied to show that certain languages are not
regular. It should never be used to show a language is regular.
• If L is regular, it satisfies Pumping Lemma.
• If L does not satisfy Pumping Lemma, it is non-regular.

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 Pumping Lemma Proof

• the pumping-lemma states that for any regular language L, there exists a
number p such that for any string w in L of length at least p there are strings
x,y,z such that

• w = xyz (1)
• |xy| <= p (2)
• |y| >= 1
• For all i, xyiz is in L (3)

• To prove that a language L is not regular, we show that the pumping lemma
fails. That is, we show that:
• For any number p, there exists a string w p in L of length at least p such that if
we choose any strings x,y,and z satisfying conditions (1)-(3), then there is
some number i such that xyiz is not in L.

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 Pumping Lemma Proof

• So, a pumping lemma proof normally looks something like this (just fill in the
blanks)
• Suppose L were regular. Let p be the pumping length given by the pumping
lemma. Consider the string wp = (insert here some description of a string,
parametrized by p)
• Clearly, |wp| >= p and wp is in L. So, by the pumping lemma, there must be
some choice of x,y,z satisfying the conditions of the pumping lemma.
• But, consider any choice of x,y,z for which wp = xyz, |xy| <= p, and |y| >= 1.
• [Insert argument as to why for some particular i, xy iz is not in L; usually i=0 or
i=2 works. Using the fact that |xy| <= p, you know that y must be in the first p
characters of the string wp.. Using this, you can usually restrict the cases for
what y can be, and argue for each of the cases that xyiz is not in L.]
• Since xyiz is not in L, we get a contraditiction; hence the assumption that L is
regular is false. Hence L is not regular.

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 Pumping Lemma Examples

Problem
• Prove that L = {aibi | i ≥ 0} is not regular.
Solution −
• At first, we assume that L is regular and n is the number of states.
• Let w = anbn. Thus |w| = 2n ≥ n.
• By pumping lemma, let w = xyz, where |xy| ≤ n.
• Let x = ap, y = aq, and z = arbn, where p + q + r = n, p ≠ 0, q ≠ 0, r ≠ 0. Thus |
y| ≠ 0.
• Let k = 2. Then xy2z = apa2qarbn.
• Number of as = (p + 2q + r) = (p + q + r) + q = n + q
• Hence, xy2z = an+q bn. Since q ≠ 0, xy2z is not of the form anbn.
• Thus, xy2z is not in L. Hence L is not regular.

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 Properties of Regular Sets

Recap: Till now we have studied RE, Identities of RE, interconversions

of RE and FA, Arden’s Theorem and Pumping lemma.

Prerequisite: Basic understanding of finite automata and Regular

expressions.

Objective: To understand the basic properties of Regular Expressions.

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 Properties of Regular Sets

Property 1. The union of two regular set is regular.

Proof −
• Let us take two regular expressions
• RE1 = a(aa)* and RE2 = (aa)*
• So, L1 = {a, aaa, aaaaa,.....} (Strings of odd length excluding Null) and
L2 ={ ε, aa, aaaa, aaaaaa,.......} (Strings of even length including Null)
• L1 ∪ L2 = { ε, a, aa, aaa, aaaa, aaaaa, aaaaaa,.......}
(Strings of all possible lengths including Null)
• RE (L1 ∪ L2) = a* (which is a regular expression itself)
• Hence, proved.

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 Properties of Regular Sets

Property 2. The intersection of two regular set is regular.

Proof −
• Let us take two regular expressions
• RE1 = a(a*) and RE2 = (aa)*
• So, L1 = { a,aa, aaa, aaaa, ....} (Strings of all possible lengths
excluding Null)
• L2 = { ε, aa, aaaa, aaaaaa,.......} (Strings of even length including Null)
• L1 ∩ L2 = { aa, aaaa, aaaaaa,.......} (Strings of even length excluding
Null)
• RE (L1 ∩ L2) = aa(aa)* which is a regular expression itself.
Hence, proved.

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 Properties of Regular Sets

Property 3. The complement of a regular set is regular.

Proof −
• Let us take a regular expression −
• RE = (aa)*
• So, L = {ε, aa, aaaa, aaaaaa, .......} (Strings of even length including
Null)
• Complement of L is all the strings that is not in L.
• So, L’ = {a, aaa, aaaaa, .....} (Strings of odd length excluding Null)
• RE (L’) = a(aa)* which is a regular expression itself.
Hence, proved.

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 Properties of Regular Sets

Property 4. The difference of two regular set is regular.

Proof −
• Let us take two regular expressions −
• RE1 = a (a*) and RE2 = (aa)*
• So, L1 = {a, aa, aaa, aaaa, ....} (Strings of all possible lengths
excluding Null)
• L2 = { ε, aa, aaaa, aaaaaa,.......} (Strings of even length including Null)
• L1 – L2 = {a, aaa, aaaaa, aaaaaaa, ....}
• (Strings of all odd lengths excluding Null)
• RE (L1 – L2) = a (aa)* which is a regular expression.
Hence, proved.
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 Properties of Regular Sets

Property 5. The reversal of a regular set is regular.

Proof −
• We have to prove LR is also regular if L is a regular set.
• Let, L = {01, 10, 11, 10}
• RE (L) = 01 + 10 + 11 + 10
• LR = {10, 01, 11, 01}
• RE (LR) = 01 + 10 + 11 + 10 which is regular
Hence, proved.

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 Properties of Regular Sets

Property 6. The closure of a regular set is regular.

Proof −
• If L = {a, aaa, aaaaa, .......} (Strings of odd length excluding Null)
• i.e., RE (L) = a (aa)*
• L* = {a, aa, aaa, aaaa , aaaaa,……………} (Strings of all lengths
excluding Null)
• RE (L*) = a (a)*
Hence, proved.

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 Properties of Regular Sets

Property 7. The concatenation of two regular sets is regular.

Proof −
• Let RE1 = (0+1)*0 and RE2 = 01(0+1)*
• Here, L1 = {0, 00, 10, 000, 010, ......} (Set of strings ending in 0)
• and L2 = {01, 010,011,.....} (Set of strings beginning with 01)
• Then, L1 L2 =
{001,0010,0011,0001,00010,00011,1001,10010,.............}
• Set of strings containing 001 as a substring which can be
represented by an RE − (0 + 1)*001(0 + 1)*
Hence, proved.

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 Daily Quiz

1. Draw a DFA for the following language over {0,1}:

a. All strings with even number of 0 and even number of 1.
b. All string of length at most 5.
2. Prove that NDFA = DFA
3. Give DFA accepting the following language over alphabet {0,1}
a. The set of all strings ending in 00
b. The ste of strings with 011 as sub string.
c. The set of string starting with 10.
4. What do you understand by Epsilon closure in FA?
5. State and prove Myhill Nerode Theorem.
6. Construct a DFA for the language that contains the strings ending
with 0.

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 Daily Quiz

1. Find all possible regular expression of language L over {a,b}:

a. The set of all strings ending in b.
b. The set of all strings ending in ba.
c. The set of all strings ending neither in b nor in ba.
d. The set of all strings ending in ab.
e. The set of all strings ending in ab.
f. The set of all strings ending neither in ab nor in ba.
2. Write regular expression for each of the following language over
the alphabet {0,1}.
a. The set of all strings in which every pair of adjacent zero appear before any
pair of adjacent one.
b. The set of all strings not containing 010 as substring.

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 MCQ s

1. FA will have equivalent ………….

a. Regular Expression
b. Arithmetic Expression
c. Logical Expression
d. Algebraic Expression

2. For a regular expression (0*10*10*)* which of the following string matches:

e. 001
f. 0011101
g. 0010101
h. 1

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 MCQs

3. A language represented by a regular expression which will contain ɛ when

it uses …….. operator for entire sub expression.
a. +
b. .
c. *
d. ++

4. For a regular expression (10* + 001*) the minimum length of a string is:

e. 1
f. 2
g. 0
h. 3

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 Weekly Assignment

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 Weekly Assignment

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 MCQ s

• The non- Kleene Star operation accepts the following string of finite length
over set A = {a,b} | where string s contains even number of 0 and 1
A. ab,aabb,ababab
B. aabb,bbaabbaa
C. ε,aabb,bbaabbaa
D. ε,aabb,bbaabbaa

• A regular language over an alphabet ∑ is one that cannot be obtained

from the basic languages using the operation

A. Union
B. Concatenation
C. Kleene*
D. All of the mentioned

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 MCQ s

• Which of the following is a not a part of 5-tuple finite automata?

a. Input alphabet
b. Transition function
c. Initial State
d. Output Alphabet

• Moore Machine is an application of:

a. Finite automata without input

b. Finite automata with output
c. Non- Finite automata with output
d. None of the mentioned

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 Glossary Questions

• Attempt all the parts. Pick the correct options from the Glossary.[CO1]
(i) Regular Grammar (ii) Context Free grammar
(iii) Context Sensitive Grammar (iv) Unrestricted Grammar

A)………….. Corresponds to the PDA.(ii)

B)…………….Corresponds to the LBA.(iii)
C)……………..Corresponds to the FA.(i)
D)………………Corresponds to the TM.(iv)
• Attempt all the parts. Pick the correct options from the Glossary.[CO1]
(i) Type -0 (ii) Type -1 (iii) Type -2 (iv) Type -3

A)………….. Corresponds to the PDA.(iii)

B)…………….Corresponds to the LBA.(ii)
C)……………..Corresponds to the FA.(iv)
D)………………Corresponds to the TM.(i)

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 Glossary Questions

• Attempt all the parts. Pick the correct options from the Glossary.[CO1]
(i) PDA (ii) FA
(iii) TM (iv) LBA

A)…………….Consist of the Store Symbol .(i)

B)…………….Corresponds to Type-0 Grammar.(iii)
C)……………..it is having limited capacity.(ii)
D)………………Corresponds to Type-1 Grammar.(iv)
• Attempt all the parts. Pick the correct options from the Glossary.[CO1]
(i) String (ii) Alphabet
(iii) Kleene Closure (iv) Positive Closure
A)…………….Consist of the Null Symbol .(iii)
B)…………….combination of the characters.(i)
C)……………..it is the smallest element of the string.(ii)
D)………………not consist of the null symbol.(iv)

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 Old Question Papers

• https://drive.google.com/file/d/12YgCV_q7QeE1d_Hp0JrOWR
FgXOcdKSRc/view?usp=sharing
• https://drive.google.com/file/d/1J5wqcdUF3nf_8UMcYD_wTb
lTK3SmChqr/view?usp=sharing
• https://drive.google.com/file/d/1VxIo8y0ZSdXXcHYLwUgii9M
uZEosGGyC/view?usp=sharing
• https://drive.google.com/file/d/1ZlOKf6Il9xwPF6YlmSGAsFSs
AjT4fNPu/view?usp=sharing
• https://drive.google.com/file/d/1dyqbDpBPuY50gsmu62JcVtg
D65t_0lu4/view?usp=sharing

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 Expected Questions for University Exam

1. Design a DFA over an alphabet {0,1}, which accepts those strings

which starts with 1 and ends with 0.
2. Design a DFA over an alphabet {0,1}, which accepts those stings
which contain odd number of 1’s.
3. Design a DFA over an alphabet {0,1}, which accepts those stings of
length at most 5.
4. Design a DFA for a language of strings for an alphabet {0,1}, which
accepts a string ending with 10.
5. Design a DFA for the language containing strings in which left most
symbol differ from right most symbol over an alphabet {0,1}.

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 Expected Questions for University Exam

1. Find the regular expression for a language which accept string

whose length is at least 2.
2. Find the regular expression for a language which accept string
whose length is 2mod3.
3. Find the regular expressions for a language which accept strings
containing at most 2 a’s over an alphabet {a,b}.
4. Find a RE for a language which accept a string which starting and
ending with same symbols over an alphabet {a,b}.
5. Construct a RE for following FA:

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 Recap

• The knowledge of regular languages and finite automata is essential

for designing a compiler.

• Deterministic Finite Automata are machine model which recognize

strings of a regular language.

• All type of Finite Automata (DFA, NDFA ) are equal in power and
convert one type of automata to other.

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 Recap

• Regular Languages are set of strings obtained from the basic

languages using union, intersection, concatination and kleene’s star
operations.
• Regular expression is a simple mathematical representation for
regular languages.
• There are two types of regular expression – Simple regular
expression and complex regular expression.

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 References

1. Aho, Hopcroft and Ullman, The Design and Analysis of Computer

Algorithms, Addison Wesley.
2. Aho, Sethi, Ullman, Compilers Principles, Techniques and Tools, Pearson
Education, 2003.
3. Hopcroft and Ullman, Introduction to Automata Theory, Languages and
Computation, Addison Wesley.
4. Kohavi, ZVI, Switching And Finite Automata Theory, Tata McGraw-Hill,
2006.
5. Lewis and Papadimitriou, Elements of the Theory of Computation,
Prentice-Hall.
6. Martin, Introduction to Languages and the Theory of Computation,
McGraw-Hill, 2nd edition,1996.
7. Mishra, KLP, Chandrasekaran, N. Theory of Computer Science, (Automata,
Languages and Computation) PHI, 2002.

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 Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology, Greater Noida

Thank You

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