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Chapter 1 Report

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Chapter 1 Report

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kathquindo
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REPORTERS

Kryo

Aicy
CHAPTER 1
LEARNER – CENTERED
THEORIES OF LEARNING
ICE BREAKER
INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOME (ILO)

Analyze learner - centered


theories of learning
INTRODUCTION
:
THE NATURE OF LEARNING
— In a broader sense though, learning extends much more beyond the confines of the classroom or
the school. People learn everyday of their lives in various places and conditions.

— The term "learning" and all other concepts related to it, expectedly form a major part of the
experiences for you who are studying to become teachers.

— The goal of education is to effect learning among students and the population at large.

— Learning connotes observed changes in a person as a result of environmental events and


interventions.

— The process of education is a deliberate effort to ensure that as students go up the educational
ladder, developmental changes in their personality are effected.
THE NATURE
OF LEARNING
For a start, learning is generally defined as any change in the behavior of the
learner

• (Mayer, 2011; and Schunk, 2012 in Woolfolk, 2013) The change can be
deliberate or unintentional, for better or for worse, correct or incorrect and
conscious or unconscious.

• ("Education," n. d.). Learning is a process that brings together personal and


environmental experiences and influences for acquiring, enriching or modifying
one's knowledge, skills, values, attitudes, behavior and world views.

• Burns (1995) Defined learning as a relatively permanent change in behavior


with behavior including both observable activity and internal processes such as
thinking, attitudes, and emotions.
• Santrock (2012, p. 217) Defined learning as a relatively permanent influence on
behavior, knowledge, and thinking skills that comes about through experience.

• Woolfolk (2016) Asserts that "learning occurs when experience (including practice)
causes a relatively permanent change in an individual's knowledge, behavior or
potential for behavior.“

• For Ormrod (2015) “learning is a long-term change in mental representations or


associations as a result of experience."

• ("Learning: Meaning, Nature, Types and Theories of Learning" n. d.) Learning is


also defined as "any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result
of practice and experience."
From the definitions, learning has three important elements:

a) change in behavior, better or worse;

b) b) change takes place through practice or experience, (not changes due to growth
or maturation); and,

c) c) behavior change must be relatively permanent and last for a fairly long time.

d) All learning involve activities, whether physical or mental. Activities learned by


the individual refer to types of learning, as for example, habits, skills, facts.
The definition of learning covers the following ELEMENTS:

a. It is a long-term change (though it does not necessarily last forever).

b. The change is brought about by experience.

c. It does not include changes that are physiological like maturation,


mental illness, fatigue, hunger or the like.

d. It involves mental representation or association, presumably, it has its


basis in the brain.
TYPES OF LEARNING
These types of learning are basic ingredients to success in school. These are what schools desire of
students to develop.

a. Motor Learning.
- It is a form of learning for one to maintain and go through daily life activities as for example,
walking, running, driving, climbing, and the like. These activities involve motor coordination.

b. Verbal Learning.
- It involves the use of spoken language as well as the communication devices used. Signs,
pictures, symbols, words, figures, sounds are tools used in such activities.

c. Concept Learning.
- A form of learning which requires the use of higher-order mental processes like thinking,
reasoning, and analyzing. It involves two processes: abstraction and generalization.
d. Discrimination Learning.
- It is learning to differentiate between stimuli a responding appropriately to these stimuli. An example is
being able to distinguish the sound of horns of different vehicles like bus, car, and ambulance.

e. Learning of Principles.
- It is learning principles related to science, mathematics, grammar and the like. Principles show the
relationship between two or m concepts, some examples of which are formulas, laws, associations, correlations and
the like.

f. Problem Solving.
-This is a higher-order thinking process. This learning requires the use of cognitive abilities - such as
thinking, reasoning, observation, imagination heredity, experience and generalization.

g. Attitude Learning.
- Attitude is a predisposition which determines and predict behavior. Learned attitudes influence one's
behavior toward people, objects, things motivation, learning or ideas.

("Learning: Meaning, Nature, Types and Theories of Learning," n. d.)


NATURE OF
THEORIES OF
LEARNING
1. Instinct Theory
2. Ethology
3. Evolutionary Psychology
4. Chomsky's Universal Grammar
5. Imprinting
6. Critical Periods
• LEARNING is a very comprehensive and complex concept, and it covers a wide
range of activities which cannot be explained with a limited framework.

• This may be the reason why there is available wide range of theories of learning,
each propounding and focusing on a particular perspective or view to explain what
learning is.

• LEARNING THEORY is an organized set of principles explaining how


individuals acquire, retain, and recall knowledge.

• Learning theories try to explain how people learn and why they learn. These
theories especially guide teachers to have a better understanding of how learning
occurs and how learners learn.
("Educational Learning and Learning Theories," n. d.)
WHAT IS
LEARNER –
CENTERED?
- A learner-centered approach is also known as student-
centered learning.

- It is an educational philosophy and methodology that


places the learner at the center of the educational
experience. In a learner-centered approach, the focus
shifts from the traditional teacher-centered model,
where the teacher is the primary source of knowledge
and instruction, to one where the student takes an
active and leading role in their own learning.
 Focus on Individual Needs
 Active Engagement
 Student Autonomy
 Collaborative Learning
 Inquiry-Based Learning
 Assessment and Feedback
 Flexible Learning Environments
 Teacher as Facilitator
 Lifelong Learning Emphasis
PRINCIPLE
S:
a. They pertain to the learner and the learning process.
b. They focus on psychological factors primarily internal and under the control of
the learner.
c. They deal with external or contextual factors that interact with the internal
factors.
d. They are seen as an organized set of principles; no principle to be viewed in
isolation.
e. The principles are classified under cognitive, metacognitive, motivational,
affective, developmental, social, and individual difference factors related to learning
f. These principles apply not only to all learners but to everybody involved in the
educational system, as for example, teachers, administrators, parents, staff, and
guidance counselors.
COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE
FACTORS
1. Nature of the Learning Process — Learning of complex subject matter
is most effective when it is an intentional process of constructing meaning
from information and experience.

2. Goals of the Learning Process — The successful learner, over time, with
support and guidance can create meaningful, coherent representations of
knowledge.

3. Construction of Knowledge — The learner can relate new information


meaningful ways.
4. Strategic Thinking — The learner can create and use a repertoire of
thinking reasoning strategies to achieve complex goals.

5. Thinking About Thinking — Higher-order strategies for selecting and


monitoring mental operations facilitate creative and critical thinking.

6. Context of Learning — Learning is influenced by environmental


factors including culture, technology, and instructional practices.
MOTIVATIONAL AND AFFECTIVE
FACTORS
7. Motivational and Emotional Influences in Learning — What and how
much is learned is influenced by the learner's level of motivation. Motivation to
leam turn influenced by the learner's emotional states, beliefs, interests, goals
and habits of thinking.

8. Intrinsic Motivation to Learn — Learning is stimulated by tasks of optimal


novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal interests, and providing for personal
choice and control.

9. Effects of Motivation on Effort - Acquisition of complex knowledge and


skills requires extended learner effort and guided practice. Without this
motivation, willingness to exert effort is unlikely, unless coerced.
DEVELOPMENTAL AND SOCIAL FACTORS
10. Developmental Influences on Learning. As individuals develop, they encounter
different opportunities and experiences, as well as constraints for learning. Learning is
most effective when differential within and across physical, intellectual, emotional and
social domains is taken into account.

11. Social Influences on Learning. Learning is influenced by social interactions,


interpersonal relations, and communication with others.
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
FACTORS
12. Individual Differences in Learning. Learners have different
strategies, approaches and capabilities for learning that are a function of
prior experience and heredity.

13. Learning and Diversity. Learning is most effective when differences


in learners' linguistic, social, and cultural backgrounds are taken into
account.

14. Standards and Assessment. Setting appropriately high and


challenging standards and assessing the learner and learning progress -
including diagnostic and outcome assessment are integral parts of the
learning process.
SANTROCK (2011) IDENTIFIES SOME LEARNER-CENTERED
INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES WHICH ADDRESS LEARNERS' NEEDS.
THEY ARE:

1. Problem-Based Learning

This strategy emphasizes real-life problem-solving. It exposes learners to authentic life problems that they meet
in their daily lives. The teacher guides and monitors the learners' problem solving efforts.

2. Essential Questions
Essential questions are asked of learners, which perplex them. This is followed by other questions, which
motivate the students to explore the questions and look for answers. The questions cause the students to think,
and provoke their curiosity.

3. Discovery Learning
This approach is in contrast to direct-instruction approach. Teachers create the situation where students explore
and figure out things for themselves. The guided discovery learning evolved from discovery learning, where
students still construct the own understanding but with the guidance of the teacher.
THEORIES OF
LEARNING
Behaviorism
- is a world view that assumes the learner is essentially passive, responding to environmental
stimuli. This perspective emerged in the early 1900s through the research efforts of Ivan Pavlov
and Edward Thorndike who made more objective studies about learning as opposed to the studies
on learning which relied heavily on introspection.

The learner starts off with a clean slate (i.e., tabula rasa) and behavior is learned or shaped through
positive reinforcement.

Behaviorism advances the idea that when a cue or stimulus in the environment is presented, the
individual makes a particular response to that stimulus.

All behavior can be explained without the need to consider the internal mental states or
consciousness.
FOLLOWING ARE THE BASIC ASSUMPTIONS OF
BEHAVIORISM, WHICH MANY BEHAVIORISTS SHARE
(ORMROD, 2015, PP. 52-53).

 Principles of learning should apply equally to different behaviors and to a variety animal species.
 Learning processes can be studied most objectively when the focus of study is on the stimuli and
responses.
 Internal processes tend to be excluded or minimized in theoretical explanations.
 Learning involves a behavior change.
 Organisms are born as blank slates.
 Learning is largely the result of environmental events.
 The most useful theories tend to be parsimonious (or concise).
COGNITIVISM OR COGNITIVE
CONSTRUCTIVISM
• The human mind is seen as a "black box" and it is necessary to open it for a better
understanding of how people learn.

• Mental processes such as memory, knowing, problem-solving, reasoning and other such
processes need to be explored.

• People are seen not as programmed beings that simply respond to environmental stimuli, as
is propounded in behaviorism.

• Cognitivism requires active participation in order to learn and actions are seen as a result of
thinking.
EXAMPLES AND APPLICATIONS OF THE COGNITIVE
LEARNING THEORY (KELLY, SEPTEMBER 2012).

a. Classifying or chunking information


b. Linking concepts (associate new content with something known)
c. Providing structure (organizing lectures in efficient and meaningful ways)
d. Real world examples Discussions
e. Discussion
f. Problem-solving
g. Analogies
h. Imagery/providing pictures
i. Mnemonics
SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM
• The learner himself constructs knowledge. People actively construct or create their own
representation of objective reality.
• New information is linked to prior knowledge, thus mental representations are subjective.
• Each person may have a different interpretation and construction of the knowledge process.
• The person is not a blank slate but brings social and cultural factors to a situation. It assumes
that all knowledge is constructed from the learner's previous knowledge regardless of how one
was taught.
• The theory is about preparing the individual to solve problems. Thus, the individual needs to
have a wide and significant base of knowledge upon which to create and interpret ideas and
thus, may be unique to the individual persons.
• So constructivism does not work when results are expectedly fixed or consistent.
FOLLOWING ARE SOME APPLICATIONS
OF SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM (KELLY,
SEPTEMBER 2012).
a. Case Studies
b. Research Projects
c. Problem Solving
d. Brainstorming
e. Collaborative Learning/Group Work
f. Discovery Learning
g. Simulations
1. SOCIAL LEARNING
THEORY
- This theory suggests that people learn within
a social context and that learning is facilitated
through concepts like modeling, observational
learning, and imitation.
2. SOCIO-CONSTRUCTIVISM
- It emphasized the significant role of context particularly social interaction in learning.

- Knowledge was considered as self-sufficient and independent of the contexts in which


it finds itself.

- In the new view, cognition and learning are understood as interactions between the
individual and a situation; knowledge is considered as situated and is a product of the
activity, context, and culture in which it is formed and utilized.

- This gave way to the new metaphor, for learning as "participation and social
negotiation."
3. EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING
- Experiential learning theories build on social and constructivist theories of learning
but situate experience at the core of the learning process.

- They aim to understand the manner in which experiences, whether first- or


secondhand motivate learners and promote their learning.

- Therefore, learning is about meaningful experiences in everyday life-that lead to a


change in individual's knowledge and behaviors.
CARL ROGERS PUT FORWARD
THE FOLLOWING INSIGHTS:
a) learning can only be facilitated; we cannot teach another person directly;

b) learners become more rigid under threat;

c) significant learning occurs in an environment where threat to the learner is reduced to a


minimum;

d) learning is most likely to occur and to last if it is self-initiated. He supports a dynamic


continuous process or change where new learning results in and affects learning
environments.
4. MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
(MI)
- This theory challenges the assumption in many learning theories that learning is a universal
human process that all individuals experience according principles.

- Howard Gardner's theory of intelligence challenges the understanding that intelligence is


dominated by a single general ability.

- The MI theory "requires" the teachers to come up with a variety of instructional materials
and strategies, to make sure that the needs of students with specific intelligences or abilities
are addressed.
5. SITUATED LEARNING THEORY
AND COMMUNITY OF PRACTICE
- These concepts were developed by Jean Lave and Ettiene Wenger. Situated learning
recognizes that there is no learning that is not situated.

- It emphasizes the relational and negotiated character of knowledge and learning as well as
the engaged nature of learning activity for the individuals involved.

- The theory further asserts that it is within communities that learning occurs most effectively.
ACCORDING TO MCCARTHY (1981, 1987)
THE CONCEPT OF COMMUNITIES OF
PRACTICE IS BASED ON THE FOLLOWING
ASSUMPTIONS:
a. Learning is fundamentally a social phenomenon.

b. Knowledge is integrated in the life of communities that share values, beliefs, language and ways of
doing things.

c. The processes of learning and membership in a community of practice are inseparable.

d. Knowledge is inseparable from practice.

e. Empowerment or the ability to contribute to a community creates the potential for learning.
6. 21ST CENTURY LEARNING
SKILLS
- The study or exploration of 21st century learning or skills emerged from the concerns about
transforming the goals and daily practice of learning to meet the new demands of the 21st
century characterized as knowledge and technology-driven.

- These are skills necessary for students to master for them to experience school and life
success in an increasingly digital and connected age.

- Current discussions about 21st century skills lead classrooms and other environments to
encourage the development of core subject knowledge as well as media literacy, critical and
systems thinking.
“Learning is not attained by
chance; it must be sought for with
ardour and diligence.”
– Abigail Adams

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