Climatology

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Introduction to

Climatology
*

Definition of Geography

*Before we define climatology, it is important to see the


highlights
GeneralofIntroduction
geography; to
therefore geography:
the course “Introduction to
Climatology
It deals with the spatial variations and relationships of
things on the earth’s surface.

It is a discipline that mainly concerned with the distribution


of elements that occur on the earth’s surface and with

variations of distribution through time and space.
*
Cont’d

It investigates the interrelationship which exists


between people and their physical as well as social
environment.

The subject matter is generally divided in to two


parts- Physical and Human (cultural) Geography.
For Physical geographer, the surface of the earth, as
a whole, includes four spheres or parts.
* cont’d

The Lithosphere - the solid part of the earth that constitute


different land forms
The Hydrosphere - the layer of the earth constituting all
forms of water.
The Biosphere - the layer that hosts all forms of living
organisms
The Atmosphere - is a gaseous envelope surrounding the
solid earth
1.1. Weather, Climate, Meteorology and climatology
1.1.1 Weather and Climate
What is Weather?
Weather is the condition of the atmosphere at the time of
observation.
* cont’d

Weather is a word used to denote the state of the atmosphere


(temperature, sunshine, rainfall, wind, cloud, pressure etc.) at
a particular place for a short period of time.

*It is constantly changing- hourly, daily, and seasonally.


What is climate? How does it differ from weather?
Climate: It is described as an aggregate of weather
conditions of an area over a long period of time.
It is an aggregate of all the environmental conditions-
heat, moisture, and pressure and air motion.
* cont’d

It is considers the trends, fluctuation and variation of these


conditions in time and space.
Climate vs. weather
* cont’d

1.1.2 Meteorology and Climatology

A. Meteorology

*Both Meteorology and climatology are specialized


sciences concerned with the study of the earth’s
atmosphere, so that both are the sciences of the
atmosphere, yet they are not exchangeable concepts.

*Meteorology, also called the physics of the atmosphere, is


concerned with the study of weather.

*In doing so, it also studies the other sub-systems of the


earth: hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere
* cont’d

*Meteorology is divided into a number of specialized


sciences:

1. Physical meteorology: deals with the physical aspects of


the atmosphere, such as the formation of clouds, rain,
thunderstorms, and lightning.

2. Dynamic Meteorology: is the study of the winds and the


laws that govern atmospheric circulation.

3. Synoptic meteorology: is the study and analysis of large


weather systems that exist for more than one day. Weather
forecasting is part of synoptic meteorology.

4. Agricultural meteorology: deals with weather and its


relationship to crops and vegetation.
* cont’d

Special Meteorological Instruments


*Meteorologists have developed several sophisticated
instruments capable of measuring multiple physical
characteristics of the air, simultaneously at more than
one location.
i. Radiosondes

*A radiosonde measures air temperature, air pressure,


and humidity from the earth’s surface up to an altitude
of about 30,000 m (about 100,000 ft).

*The radiosonde consists of a small box attached to a


gas-filled balloon. As the balloon rises, a barometer
measures air pressure, a thermometer measures
* cont’d

ii. Doppler radar

*Doppler radar provides meteorologists with


information about precipitation and storms.

*. Doppler radar can determine wind speed by


measuring the speed at which precipitation is moving
horizontally toward or away from the radar antenna.

*Meteorologists also use Doppler radar to peer into


severe thunderstorms and locate tornadoes.
* cont’d

* iii. Weather Satellites


*A weather satellite is a cloud-observing platform in space.
*Satellites provide cloud observations day and night over
vast regions.

*There are two main types of weather satellites:


geostationary satellites and polar orbiting satellites.
Successive cloud photographs from geostationary satellites
provide meteorologists with valuable information about the
development, movement, and dissipation of weather fronts,
storms, and clouds.
* cont’d

B. Climatology

 It is the science that describes and explains the variability


in space and time of the heat and moisture states of the
Earth’s surface.
 It is the science of climate which studies the Physical and spatial
state of the atmospheric conditions over a long period of time.

 Climatology, which is a branch of meteorology, studies


about climate. It seeks to describe and explain the nature
of climate; why it differs from place to place & time to
time, and how it is related to the other elements of the
natural environment (vegetation, land form, altitude, etc)
and to human activities.
* cont’d

* ‘Climatology is a summary, a composition of weather


conditions over a long period of time.’
* Generally,Climatology is the science of climate which study
the physical state of the atmosphere:-
oover a specific region
oduring a specific periods
oon the basis of climatic data
SUB-DIVISIONS OF CLIMATOLOGY
The following are the sub-divisions of climatology:-
Physical climatology:- is concerned with the physical processes
taking place in the atmosphere.
 Seeksto explain the factors responsible for bringing out the
temporal and spatial variations in heat exchange, moisture
exchange and air movement.
 That is, it tries to explain why there are different climates in
different regions.
• Physical climatology is closely related to meteorology
* cont’d

Dynamic climatology:-
*is global in scope and it studies the thermodynamic
processes in the atmosphere and the resultant atmospheric
motions
*it investigate the impact of changes in various physical
parameters on climate
• This branch of climatology includes:-
i. The effect of the increase of greenhouse gases in global
temperature
ii. the role of mountains in determining the dynamics of the
atmosphere
iii. An investigation into sea-surface temperature
* cont’d

Synoptic climatology:-
Deals with local or hemispheric climate from the view
point of atmospheric circulation.
Different circulation patterns lead to differences in
climates
It studies the relationship between circulation features and
severe weather conditions-E.g.- the effect of El Nino and
La Nina in creating severe weather conditions
* cont’d

Regional climatology:-

*This branch of climatology seeks to determine and describe


the various types of world climates.

Applied climatology:-

*This branch of climatology is concerned with the application


of the climatological knowledge to practical problems

* It analyses the relationship of climatology to other sciences


*The main purpose is to find out the ways and means to
make use of our knowledge of climatic elements for the
betterment of human life on the Earth.
* cont’d

* An alternative approach to the sub-division of climatology is based


on spatial scales of meteorological motion systems
*The division includes:
*Macro climatology: Is concerned with features of climates of large
areas of the earth and the large scale atmospheric motions that cause
the climate.
*Meso climatology: It is concerned with the study of climate over
relatively small areas of between 10-100km across e.g. the study of
urban climate or severe local weather systems like tornadoes and
thunderstorms
* cont’d

Microclimatology: It is concerned with the study of the


climate of very small areas less than 100 m across.
1.2.1. Elements of Weather and Climate
 Elements (or components) of weather and climate
refer to elements through which change in the
atmosphere manifests itself.
The elements primarily include sunshine, temperature,
humidity, precipitation, air pressure and wind etc. These
elements characterize both climate and
weather.
* cont’d

Temperature
*Temperature shows how hot or cold a body is.
*It is the intensity that concerns how hot or cold
the atmosphere is, how many degrees Celsius it
is above or below freezing.
*Temperature is a very important factor in
determining the weather, because it influences
other elements of the weather, such as
precipitation, humidity, clouds & atmospheric
pressure.
* cont’d

Solar radiation
*It is the most important element of climate.
*Solar radiation first and foremost heats the
Earth's surface which in turn determines the
temperature of the air above.
*The receipt of solar radiation drives
evaporation, so long as there is water available.
Air pressure it is the weight of air resting on
the earth's surface. Air has specific weight.
The weight exerted by the air is atmospheric
* cont’d

Humidity
 Atmospheric moisture is the most important element
of the atmosphere which modifies the air temperature.
 Humidity is the measurable amount of moisture in the
air of the lower atmosphere.
Precipitation it is the term given to moisture that falls
from the air to the ground. It includes snow, hail, sleet,
drizzle, fog, mist and rain
Wind It is the horizontal movement of the atmosphere
which can be felt only when it is in motion.
Wind is the result of the horizontal differences in the air
* cont’d

Cloudiness
Clouds are suspended water in the atmosphere.
Clouds give us a clue about what is going on in our
atmosphere and how the weather might change in the hours
or even days to come
1.2.2. Controls of weather and climate
*Both weather and climate differs from place to place and
from time to time due to the variation in the amount,
intensity and areal distribution of various climate elements.
*The factors that cause for such variation are termed as
controls of climate and weather.
* cont’d

*Some of the controls of climate and weather are:-


i) Latitude (distance from the equator) :The latitudinal
locations of places determine the amount of solar energy
they receive by each unit area. This is because latitudinal
location determines the angle at which the sun’s rays
strike the earth’s surface.

 When the angle at which the sun’s rays strike the earth’s
surface is vertical, each unit area receives large amount of
solar energy because of concentration of light.

 While slanting (oblique) rays result in small amount of solar


radiation per unit area due to more albedo, more scattering,
and more dispersion.
* cont’d

ii) Altitude: has definite impact on temperature, pressure


and precipitation. Two places in the same latitude but
different altitude may experience different climate.

iii) Ocean Currents: Ocean water moving from low latitude


toward the high latitude is termed as warm ocean currents,
while those moving towards the tropics are called cold ocean
currents.

 Both Warm and cold ocean currents can influence the


climate of coastal areas and over ocean and seas.

 Warm ocean currents have a warming effect while cold


ocean currents have a chilling effect on the coastal climate.
* cont’d

iv) Distance from Water Bodies :Two places having


the same altitude and latitudinal locations may
experience different daily and annual ranges of
temperature, due to differences in their locations with
respect to water bodies.

Places nearer to water bodies are said to have


maritime climate, and characterized by relatively
small daily and annual ranges of temperature.

 Places away from water bodies (inland places) are


characterized by continental climate. Places with
continental climate have large daily and annual
* cont’d

v) Mountains barriers/Relief

 Topography affects climate in a variety of


ways. The orientation of mountains to the
prevailing wind affects precipitation.

 Windward slopes, those facing into the wind,


experience more precipitation due to
orographic uplift of the air.

 Whereas, Leeward sides of mountains (also


called rain shadow) receive less precipitation.
* Chapter Two
2. The Meaning, Origin, Functions, Composition and Structure of the
Atmosphere

2.1 Meaning, Origin and Functions of the


Atmosphere

*The atmosphere is a mixture of gases and suspended of


liquid and solid which entirely envelope the earth.

*It is significant component of the natural or physical


environment and biosphere ecosystem because it
provides all the gases necessary for the surface of all life
forms in the biosphere.

*The energy exchanges that continually occur between


* cont’d

*According to the Nebula Theory, the principal gases that


constituted the original atmosphere are believed to have
been hydrogen, helium and hydrogen compounds (e.g.
NH4, NH3 etc.).

*. Because of the role played by the atmosphere, the


earth is the only planet of our solar System capable of
supporting life to exist. The most obvious and vital
functions are the following:

1. It supplies oxygen to animals and CO 2 to plants during


respiration and photosynthesis, respectively. Thus, it made
the earth a live able place.
* cont’d

3. The blanketing influence of the atmosphere also


protects us from most lethal ultraviolet and cosmic
radiations.

2.2.1 Composition Of The Atmosphere

* The constituents of the atmosphere are collectively


referred to as air, although air itself is not a specific
gaseous element, rather it is a mixture of individual
gases each of which retains its own particular
properties.

*Various gases present in a volume of air near the


* cont’d

Table 2.1 Composition of the Atmosphere near the Earth’s


Surface
* cont’d

Oxygen and nitrogen

*Ignoring for the moment the liquids and solids


always present, the gaseous mixture which makes
up the atmosphere has a remarkably uniform
composition in the troposphere where most of the
air is located.

*Two gases, oxygen and nitrogen, account for 99


per cent of the total by volume. Oxygen (21 per
cent by volume) participates readily in chemical
reactions, and provides one of the necessities of
* cont’d

*During thunderstorms, the enormous energy flow in a


lightning stroke may cause nitrogen to combine with
oxygen to produce oxides of nitrogen.

* There is no evidence that the relative levels of oxygen


and nitrogen are changing significantly, although there
have been measurable changes in the proportions of
other gases in the atmosphere

*. Changes in the nature of oxygen, however, are


involved in the depletion of the ozone layer.

*Oxygen can exist in the atmosphere as atomic,


diatomic or triatomic oxygen, depending upon the
* cont’d

The minor gases and the greenhouse effect

*Among the minor gases the most abundant one is


argon at 0.93 per cent by volume, but it is inert.

* Another of these minor gases, carbon dioxide has a


much more active role in environmental processes.

*It comprises only 0.03 per cent by volume, yet it


makes a significant contribution to the heating of the
atmosphere, and is a major participant in the
process of photosynthesis by which sugars, starches
and other complex organic compounds are produced
* cont’d

* Carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere mainly from the


decay of vegetation, but it also comes from volcanic
eruptions, the exhalations of animal life, from the burning of
fossil fuels (such as coal, oil, and natural gas), and from
deforestation.

*The removal of CO2 from the atmosphere takes place during


photosynthesis, as plants consume CO2 to produce green
matter.
Oxides of sulphur and nitrogen

*There are many other gases which from time to time


become constituents of the atmosphere.

*These include sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, hydrogen


* cont’d

* All of these gases are natural constituents of the


atmosphere, released as a result of biological
activity, created during volcanic eruptions or
produced by natural wood and grass fires.
*Increasing industrial activity, and the continued
reliance on fossil fuels as energy sources, has caused
a gradual, but steady, growth in the proportion of
sulphur and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere over
the past 2–3 decades.
*In combination with atmospheric water, these gases
—whether natural or anthropogenic in origin—are the
* cont’d

Water in the atmosphere


• The creation of acid rain would not be possible
without water.
• Water is unique among the constituents of the
atmosphere in that it is capable of existing as
solid, liquid or gas, and of changing readily
from one state to another. It becomes involved
in energy transfer as a result of these
changes.
• Water is also involved in the earth’s energy
* cont’d

* The changing of water vapor into liquid water is called


condensation, whereas the process of liquid water
becoming water vapor is called evaporation. The falling
rain and snow is called precipitation.

*Water vapor is an extremely important gas in our


atmosphere. Not only does it form into both liquid and
solid cloud particles that grow in size and fall to earth as
precipitation, but it also releases large amounts of heat
— called latent heat.

* Moreover, water vapor is a potent greenhouse gas


because it strongly absorbs a portion of the earth’s
* cont’d

* Carbon dioxide and water vapor are not the only greenhouse
gases.

* Recently, others have been gaining notoriety, primarily because


they, too, are becoming more concentrated. Such gases include
methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs).

* Impurities from both natural and human sources are also present
in the atmosphere.

* The major components of atmosphere can be divided in to three


major categories. They are:

i) Non-variable (permanent) gases

ii) Variable gases


* cont’d

*The major components of atmosphere can be divided


in to three major categories. They are:

1. The Non- Variable (Permanent) Gases: - The


permanent gases are those gases whose relative
proportion remains unchanged. The non-variable gases
which comprise 98 percent of the total atmosphere by
volume include Nitrogen (N2), Oxygen (O2), Argon
(Ar), Neon (Ne), Helium (He) etc...
* cont’d

*2. Variable Gases: Variable gases refer to atmospheric gases that vary
appreciably in relative abundance over a short period of time. Comprise
only a very small proportion of the atmosphere’s total mass and
volume. e.g. Water vapor, Carbon dioxide, Ozone, Methane (CH 4)
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydro fluorocarbons (HFCs), Nitrous
oxide(N2O )…..

3. Particulates: Atmospheric particulates consist of liquids and solids


particle that are found suspended in the atmosphere because of their small
size.

Most particulates are solids rather than liquids, and are collectively referred
to as dust (aerosols).
* cont’d

2.3. Vertical Structure (Vertical Layering) of the Atmosphere

2.3.1. Compositional layers

* The atmosphere is divided into two major compositional layers:


homosphere and heterosphere.

i) Homosphere

* It refers to part of the atmosphere that lies between the earth’s surface and 80 kilometers
above the surface which contains more than 99.9 percent of the total air.

* In this part of the atmosphere various gasses are kept mixed by wind currents so that the
proportion of the non-variable gases remains constant.

ii) Heterosphere

* The density of the atmosphere above 80 kilometer is low so that the number of air
molecules colliding is greatly reduced. The wind flows at these higher altitude is also
* cont’d

2.3.2 Thermal Layers

* On the basis of the vertical distribution of air temperature,


atmosphere is classified into four thermal layers:

Troposphere

* It is the lowest layer of the atmosphere.


* It extends on average to about 11 kilometers from the surface.
* It extends upward from the surface to about 16 kilometers over
the equator and only to about 8 km from the surface over the
Polar Regions.

* On the other hand, 75 percent of the total molecular or gaseous


mass of the atmosphere and virtually, water vapor and aerosols,
are concentrated in this layer.
* cont’d

ii) The Stratosphere

*The stratosphere is the second major thermal layer


overlying the troposphere.

*It extends from the tropo-pause to an altitude of 50


kilometers.

* In this part of the atmosphere, temperature


gradually increases with increasing elevation
(temperature inversion).The reason for the inversion
to take place in this layer is that, the ozone gas
plays a major part in heating the air at this altitude.
* cont’d

iii) Mesosphere

* The word mesosphere is used to mean the middle sphere.


* It represents part of the atmosphere that lies between the
stratosphere and thermosphere (50-80km above the surface).

* The air at this level is extremely thin and the atmospheric


pressure is quite low.

* The temperature in the mesosphere decreases with height, a


phenomena due, in part to the fact that there is little ozone in
the air to absorb solar radiation. Consequently, there would be
more losing of energy than absorbing.

* This part is, therefore, the coldest and the darkest part of the
atmosphere.
* cont’d

iv) Thermosphere

*The thermosphere, the outermost layer of the


atmosphere extends out ward from about 80 km to1600
kms.

*The temperature gradually rises to eventually reach


about 15000C.

*The air temperature increasing with height indicates


another inversion.

*The outer most layer of the atmosphere, the


thermosphere, blocks a variety of harmful cosmic
radiation including x-rays, gamma rays, and some
Unit Three
3. The Radiation Budget and Energy of the Earth Atmosphere System

3.1.1. Basic Terms: Energy, Heat and Temperature

 By definition, energy is the ability or capacity to accomplish


work on some form of matter. Work is done when matter is
pushed, pulled, or lifted over some distance.

*Conventionally the different forms of energy can be classified


into two different forms potential and kinetic energy.

*Potential energy refers to the energy that is stored in a body


(e.g. a lake behind a dam).

*Kinetic energy, on the other hand, refers to energy of motion


and is usually defined as that will be done by the body
possessing energy (e.g. blowing wind).
* cont’d

*Heat is energy in the process of being transferred form


one object to another because of the temperature
difference between them.

*Heat transfer is a study of the exchange of thermal


energy between bodies when there is a temperature
difference.

*When two bodies are at different temperatures,


thermal energy transfers from the one with higher
temperature to the one with lower temperature.

* After heat is transferred, it is stored as internal


energy.
* cont’d

*In the atmosphere, heat is transferred by


conduction, convection, and radiation.

i. Specific Heat: The heat capacity of a unit mass


of a substance is called specific heat.

In other words, specific heat is the amount of heat


needed to raise the temperature of one gram (g) of a
substance by 10C.

If we heat 1 g of liquid water on a stove, it would


take about 1 calorie (Ca) to raise its temperature by
10C. So water has a specific heat of 1.
* cont’d

If, however, we put the same amount (that is, same mass) of
compact dry soil on the flame, we would see that it would take
about one-fifth the heat (about 0.2 cal) to raise its temperature
by 1°C. The specific heat of water is therefore 5 times greater
than that of soil.

Not only does water heat slowly, it cools slowly as well. It has a
much higher capacity for storing energy than other common
substances, such as soil and air.
* cont’d

ii. Latent Heat-the Hidden Warmth: Water vapor is an


invisible gas that becomes visible when it changes into
larger liquid or solid (ice) particles. This process of
transformation is known as a change of state or, simply, a
phase change. The heat energy required to change a
substance, such as water from one state to another is called
latent heat.

- Latent heat is released into the atmosphere as water


changes from a less ordered to a more-ordered state
(order- systematic organization of atoms).

- Heat is absorbed as water changes to a less ordered state


(evaporation, melting and sublimation).
* cont’d

- Latent heat is an important source of atmospheric energy.


Once vapor molecules become separated from the earth’s
surface, they are swept away by the wind, like dust before
a broom.

- Rising to high altitudes where the air is cold, the vapor


changes into liquid and ice cloud particles. During these
processes, a tremendous amount of heat energy is
released into the environment.

iii. Sensible heat- is the heat we can feel and measure


with a thermometer. Temperature is a quantitative measure
of the average speed of motion of atoms or molecules in a
substance in a given moment.
3.1.2. Origin and Processes of Energy Transfer

i) Origin of Energy

*The sun is the chief source of energy.


*Practically, almost all of the energy (99.98 percent)
that gets to the earth’s surface comes from the sun
and only, a trivial portion of the earth’s energy come
from the interior of the earth when it is generated by
the decay of radioactive elements.

*Energy generated in the earth’s interior reaches the


surface of the earth in the form of earth quake,
geyser, fumaroles and volcanic eruption.
* cont’d

All biological and physical processes taking place on


the planet earth and other members of the solar
system, if any, are powered by the energy
overwhelmingly coming from the sun. This energy plays
a vital role:

a) To set air molecules into motion, that is, the solar


radiation is converted into energy that powers the wind
and ocean currents. Winds and ocean currents at the
same time transfer heat from place to place.

b) To control exchange of water vapor and liquid water


between land surface and water surfaces. This requires a
* cont’d

ii) Methods of Heat Energy Transfer

The heat energy transfers from one place to another place by


the process of radiation, conduction, and convection.

a)Radiation-Is the process of heat (energy) transfer by


electro-magnetic waves, without using or necessity of
transmitting medium.

* The most familiar example of radiation is our own sun,


which radiates at a temperature of almost 6000 k.
* cont’d

*The only mechanism in which heat can travel


through the relative emptiness of space in a
wave form-without the aid of an intervening
medium.

*The vast majority of energy coming to and


leaving the earth is in this form.

*It plays an important role in transferring heat


from the earth’s surface to the atmosphere and
vice versa.
Cont’d

Conduction- The transfer of heat from molecule to


molecule within a substance is called conduction.

*Hold one end of a metal straight pin between your


fingers and place a flaming candle under the other end
(See Fig. 3.1). Because of the energy they absorb from
the flame, the molecules in the pin vibrate faster.

*The faster-vibrating molecules cause adjoining


molecules to vibrate faster. These, in turn, pass
vibrational energy on to their neighboring molecules,
and so on, until the molecules at the finger-held end of
the pin begin to vibrate rapidly.
Cont’d

*Heat transferred in this fashion always flows from warmer to


colder regions. Generally, the greater the temperature
difference, the more rapid the heat transfer.

Fig 3.1 The transfer of heat from the hot end of the metal pin
to the cool end by molecular contact is called conduction
Cont’d

*Conduction is the transfer of heat through matter by


molecular activity.

C) Convection- The transfer of heat by the mass


movement of a fluid (such as water and air) is called
convection. This type of heat transfer takes place in liquids
and gases because they can move freely.

Convection is the process of heat transmission by the


actual motion of the heated body.

 The heated molecule, for example, molecules of heated


fluid or air, moves away to cooler part on the top and the
cooler body moves down to replace the one moved away,
Cont’d

* Convection occurs when heat flows by the mass movement of


molecules from one place to another.

* In atmospheric studies, the term convection is used to refer to


vertical transfer of air motion while the term advection signifies
horizontal motion of air .As they transfer heat from place to place,
these processes are responsible for heating and cooling of the
Cont’d

3.2. Electro Magnetic Radiations and


Electromagnetic Spectrum

What is an electromagnetic radiation?

*Radiation is the transfer of energy via


electromagnetic waves that travel at the speed of
light.

* The velocity of light in a vacuum is approximately


3 x 108 m/s. The time it takes light from the sun to
reach the Earth is 8 minutes and 20 seconds. The
many different types of radiation is defined by its
Cont’d
Cont’d

 Electromagnetic radiation can be arranged in a spectrum.


An electromagnetic wave is characterized by its
wavelength (λ) and frequency (ƒ).

Because a wave consists of successive troughs or crests,


the wavelength is the distance between two identical
adjacent points in the repeating cycles of the propagating
wave, and the frequency is defined as the number of
cycles per unit of time.

*The units for wavelength vary from picometers (pm) to


megameters (Mm); for the frequency, the most common
unit is the hertz (Hz).
Cont’d

Fig: 3.3 Electric and magnetic components of


electromagnetic radiation
Cont’d

What is an electromagnetic spectrum?

*The electromagnetic spectrum represents an ordered


array of electromagnetic radiation, which extends from
waves of extremely high frequency and short
wavelength (i.e. from gamma rays) to extremely low
frequency and long wavelength (i.e. radio waves).

* In order of decreasing frequency, the electromagnetic


spectrum consists of gamma rays (0.000001 μm), hard
and soft X rays, ultraviolet radiation, visible light,
infrared radiation, microwaves, and radio waves.
Cont’d

The sun emits 44%, 37%., 11% and 7% of its radiation in


visible, near infrared, far infrared and ultraviolet radiation
respectively.

Ultraviolet or UV portion of the spectrum has the shortest wavelengths


next to gamma rays & X-rays. The light which our eyes can detect is
called visible spectrum.

3.2.1 Measures of Electromagnetic Radiation

*Electromagnetic radiation is measured by wave length (the distance


between two adjacent crests) or frequently (the number of waves that
passes a point in a second).
Cont’d

A) Wave Length

* The horizontal distance between two successive crests is the


wave length, which is usually expressed by the Greek letter
lambda (α).

* Electro-magnetic radiations vary greatly in wave length.


* The low points (valleys) of the waves are called troughs. The high
points (ridges) of the waves are the crests.
Cont’d

B) Wave Frequency

*Wave frequency is the number of wave’s peaks (Wave


length) by passing a fixed point in a unit of time .Wave
frequency is expressed in cycles per second (or hertz (Hz).It
is usually symbolized by the Greek letter V.

3.2.3. Wavelength, Wave Frequency, and Amplitude

Frequency corresponds to the number of wavelengths that


pass by a certain point in space in a given amount of time.

 This value is usually measured in cycles per second, or hertz


Cont’d

*All electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed.


* Hence, wave length and frequency are inversely related.
That is, longer the wave length the lower the frequency and
vice versa. This means that shorter wave lengths have a
higher frequency than longer waves.

*The relationship between wavelength, wave speed, and


wave frequency is expressed by the equation: wave speed
equals wavelength times wave frequency.
*Our eyes are sensitive to solar radiation with wave length
between 0.4 and 0.7 μm.
*These waves reach the human eyes and stimulate the
sensation of color.
Cont’d

*The violet color is the shortest wave length of the visible light. Wave
lengths shorter than violet (0.4 μm) are:
 Ultraviolet
 X-ray and
 Gamma rays
 Cosmic rays
3.4. Heat Budget and Radiation Balance

* The Sun provides the Earth with an enormous amount of energy.


The energy stored by the oceans helps maintain the temperature of
the Earth at an equilibrium level that allows for stability for a broad
diversity of life.

* The incoming shortwave solar radiation is budgeted in the reflective


and absorptive acts of the earth’s atmosphere and the surface.
Cont’d

*Radiation balance is an accounting of the incoming and


outgoing radiation components.

*These components are balanced over long time periods and


over the Earth as whole.

*If incoming and outgoing radiation were not balanced, the


Earth would be constantly cooling or warming.

*Earth receives energy from the sun in the form of solar


radiation with shorter wavelength, whereas the earth radiates
heat back to space at much longer wavelengths than the sun

*The incoming shortwave solar radiation is budgeted in the


reflective and absorptive acts of the earth’s atmosphere and
the surface.
Cont’d

3.4.1 Scattering, Reflection and Absorption of solar radiation

*A part of the incoming short wave solar radiation transported to the


earth-atmosphere system is either scattered or reflected or absorbed and
a part is transmitted to the earth’s surface where it is either reflected or
absorbed.
i. Scattering
* There are constituents in the atmosphere which prevent some kinds of
radiation from reaching the surface, such as ozone which stops the
ultraviolet.
*A fair proportion of the Earth is covered by clouds which reflect a lot of
the Sun's radiation and thus affecting the surface temperature.
Cont’d

*Scattering does, however, reduce the amount of incoming radiation


reaching the Earth's surface.

* A significant proportion of scattered shortwave solar radiation is


redirected back to space.

*The amount of scattering that takes place is dependent on two


factors: λ of the incoming radiation and the size of the scattering
particle or gas molecule

ii. Reflected Radiation and Albedo

*Reflection is a process where sunlight is redirect by 180° after it strikes an


atmospheric particle.
Cont’d

*Most of the reflection in our atmosphere occurs in clouds when


light is intercepted by particles of liquid and frozen water.

*The term albedo is used to describe the percentage (or fraction) of


radiation reflected back. It is defined as the ratio of the reflected
radiation to the total intercepted radiation.
Cont’d

* Albedo, the ratio of light reflected to light received, varies widely from place to place
depending upon the composition of the surface.

iii. Absorption of solar Radiation

* Absorption is defined as a process in which solar radiation is retained by a substance and


converted into heat. The creation of heat also causes the substance to emit its own
radiation.
Cont’d

*Out of the total unit number (100 percent) solar radiation (insolation)
reaching the top of the earth’s atmosphere, about 30 percent is returned
back as the total planetary albedo.

* It is evident that out of the total unit number (or percent) radiation
emitted by the sun, about 70 percent is absorbed by the earth-
atmosphere system.

*Factors Affecting the Amount of Radiation Reaching the Earth’s


Surface and Radiation Measurements

The intensity of solar radiation (insolation) intercepted at a place is


affected by various factors. Thus, solar radiation reception varies from
region to region and from time to time.
Cont’d

*The amount of solar radiation received by the earth, assuming for


the moment that there is no interference from the atmosphere, is
affected by four factors: solar output, the sun earth distance, the
altitude of the sun and day length.

i) Variation in Solar Output

*Because of the great distance between the earth from the sun, i.e.
150 million km (roughly 93 million miles), the earth intercepts
only a tiny fraction of the sun’s rays. A surface placed
perpendicular to the solar beam arrests the largest possible amount
of radiation.
Cont’d

ii) Distance Variation between the sun and Earth

*The Earth’s orbit around the sun is somewhat elliptical, causing


the distance between the earth and the sun to vary by about
5million kilometers during the course of a year.

*When the earth is at perihelion on January 3 (142,000,000 kms), it


intercepts approximately 7 percent more isolation than it does at
aphelion (152,000,000 kms) in July.

*The earth is expected to be warmer at perihelion than at the time


of aphelion.
Cont’d

iii) Altitude of the sun

* The altitude of the sun (i.e. is the angle formed between the rays of the sun and a
tangent to the earth’s surface at the point of observation) affects the amount of
solar radiation received at the surface of the earth.

* When the sun is high in the sky (i.e. vertical rays), the radiant energy received per
unit area of the earth’s surface is maximum.

iv) Length of Day

* The length of day light, which depends upon the altitude of the sun, can also affect
the amount of radiation received. Obviously, the longer the time that the sun
shines, the greater is the quantity of radiation a given portion of the earth will
receive. Length of a day light is close to 12 hours in all months, around the
equator where as it varies between 0 and 24 hours between and winter summer, as
we move away from the equator.
Cont’d

Table : Variations in Length of Day at Various Latitude

3.6 Air Temperature

* Unlike heat, temperature is not a form of energy; however, temperature is related


to the amount of energy in a substance.

* Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of individual molecules in


matter. Thus, temperature is a measure of heat.
Cont’d

3.6 Air Temperature

Temperature of a body expresses the extent to which it is hot or


cold.

It is the measure of coldness or hotness of an object


Unlike heat, temperature is not a form of energy; however,
temperature is related to the amount of energy in a substance.

Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of


individual molecules in matter. Thus, temperature is a measure of
heat.
Cont’d

*Heat and temperature are different. Heat is energy in the


process of being transferred from one object to another because
of temperature difference existing between them.

* After heat is transferred, it is stored as internal energy. As heat


energy is gained (absorbed) from another source (as internal
energy is converted to molecular kinetic energy) the
temperature rises.

*Air temperature is, therefore a quantitative measure of the


average speed of motion of molecules.

*Thermometers were developed to measure air temperature.


Cont’d

Variations of Air temperature

*Air temperature varies temporally, vertically &horizontally.


i) Temporal Variations of Air temperature

*Temporal variation of air temperature refers to variation of air temperature


in relation to time, which is commonly differentiated in to daily and annual
variations.

ii. Vertical Variation of Air Temperature


*Under normal conditions, air temperature decreases with increasing
elevation.
*The average rate of temperature decrease upward in the troposphere
is about 6.5oC per km.
Cont’d

* Temperature controls
*The factors that control the earth’s temperature pattern are divided into:
i. Primary temperature controls
ii. Secondary temperature controls.
i) Primary temperature controls
*Although a number of factors influence the earth’s temperature pattern,
five factors stand out as the primary controls. They are:
* i. latitude
* ii. The duration of day light
* iii. The distribution of land and water
* iv. The elevation, and
* v. The pattern of ocean current
Cont’d

1. Latitude: The world pattern of temperature is determined by a


number of factors.

The general decrease in temperature from the equator toward the


poles is one of the most fundamental and best known facts of
climatology.

Temperature decreases pole ward, due to the fact that angle at which
the rays of the sun striking the earth/’s surface gradually diminishes.

2. . The distribution of land and water: The heating difference


between land mass and water areas break up the orderly arrangement.
Land areas warm and cool more rapidly than do water bodies.
Cont’d

3. Ocean currents: Ocean currents traveling pole ward


warms overlying air, producing air temperatures higher than
normally would be expected. A current moving towards the
equator will produce lower air temperatures.
Scales of temperature measurement
*There are various scales of temperature measurement.
Namely:
The Fahrenheit scale (°F)
The Celsius (or centigrade) scale (°C)
Cont’d

*The most commonly used scale for measuring temperature


is the Celsius system
*In this system the freezing and the boiling points for water
on the Celsius scale are 0 and 100 respectively.
*The Fahrenheit scale has values of 32 and 212, for the
freezing and boiling points of water respectively.
*The Kelvin scale was proposed by British physicist
Kelvin in 1848. This scale assigns a value of 273 for the
freezing temperature of water while the boiling point of
Cont’d
Conversion Between Celsius and Fahrenheit
Celsius and Fahrenheit can be easily converted into each other.
The relationship between Celsius and Fahrenheit:

To convert Fahrenheit (°F) to Celsius (°C) :

Temperature of 0K is equal to –273°C to convert Kelvin to Celsius: Kelvin (°K) = °C+273


Fahrenheit to Kelvin :
Kelvin (°K) = (°F+459.9)5/9
Cont’d
Celsius to Kelvin & Fahrenheit to Kelvin conversion
Celsius to Kelvin

Whereas, the relationship between Fahrenheit & Kelvin is:

Example: Based on the above equations Convert 98.6°F into Celsius (°C) and Kelvin scale
(°K).
° C= 5/9(°F-32)
= 5/9(98.6-32)
= 333/9
= 37 (Therefore, 98.6°F is equal to 37°C)
°K= (98.6+460)5/9
=558.6x5/9
=2793/9
=310°K
K=°C+273
=37+273=310°K (i.e 310°K is equivalent with 37°C)
Cont’d

Exercise
1. Convert the following Celsius scale to degree Fahrenheit and Kelvin
a) 85°C b) 50°C
2. Convert the following °F to Celsius scale and Kelvin
a) 180°F b) 140°F
3. Convert the following °K to °F and °C
a) 150 °K b) 400 °K
Cont’d

Vital temperature data

*The careful recording and application of temperature data


are tremendously important to all us. People from diversified

professions make use of different temperature data. Basic

temperature data include:


Cont’d

i) Daily Range: is the difference between the daily maximum and


daily minimum temperatures.
The largest diurnal range of temperatures occurs in hot deserts where
the air is fairly dry and cloudless. By day clear skies allow the sun’s
energy to quickly warm the ground.
In humid region, the diurnal temperature range is usually small. Here
clouds and hazes lower the maximum temperature of a day.
*ii) Mean Daily temperatures: refers to the average of the highest
and lowest temperatures for a period of 24 hours.
Cont’d

iii) Mean Monthly Temperatures: is obtained by adding the daily


mean temperatures of all the days in a month, and dividing by the
number of days.

iv) Annual Range of Temperature: is the difference between the


coldest and the hottest months.
v) Mean Annual temp: is the average of the 12 months mean
temperatures.
Unit Four
4. Air Pressure and Wind

4.1.1. Air pressure measurement and air pressure variation


*Air pressure—the weight of the atmosphere described as force per
unit area—is key to understanding wind.
*The molecules that constitute air create air pressure through their
motion, size, and number, and this pressure is exerted on all surfaces in
contact with air.
i. Air pressure and density

*Air pressure, or simply atmospheric pressure, refers to the force that


air molecule exerts upon its surroundings because of its weight.
Cont’d

*As we climb an elevation, fewer air molecules are above us


hence, atmospheric pressure always decreases with increasing
height.
*The masses of atoms and molecules, and the amount of space
between them, determine the density of a substance. It tells us
how much matter is found in a given space (i.e. volume).
* Density is the mass of a substance per unit of volume.
Similarly, air density is used to determine the mass of air in a
given volume.
Cont’d

ii .Measurement and units of air pressure


*We measure atmospheric (air) pressure with an
instrument called a barometer. Barometers can
be grouped in to two basic categories: mercurial
barometers and aneroid barometers.
*Mercurial barometers are the most accurate
instruments for air pressure measurement.
*The second type, the aneroid barometer is
the most common type of barometer found in
Cont’d
Cont’d

 As shown in the Figure, the face of an aneroid barometer


intended for home use and has weather related terms
such as: fair, change, rain, and stormy printed above
specific pressure values.
 Notice that “fair weather” corresponds with high-pressure
readings, whereas “rain” is associated with low pressures.
To predict weather in a local area, the change in air
pressure over the past few hours is more important than
the current pressure reading.
 Falling pressure is often associated with increasing
cloudiness and the possibility of precipitation, whereas
rising air pressure generally indicates clearing conditions.
Cont’d

ii) Air pressure unit: Air pressure, the force that


the air exerts on its surroundings, is expressed
using two different types of units: length and force
measuring units.

*Length measuring units tells us the height of the


column in the mercurial barometer .Length
measuring units include inch, centimeter and
millimeter.

*The mass measuring units (scales) used to


express air pressure include milli bar, bar,
Cont’d

Wind

*Wind is one of the elements of weather and climate,


which is tremendously important as a global distributor
of both moisture and thermal energy.

*Wind is generally the horizontal motion of air across


Earth’s surface. Differences in air pressure between
one location and another produce wind.

* It carries water evaporated from the oceans to the


land. It also transports tremendous quantity of both
sensible and latent heat (heating water vapor) from
the tropics to the high latitudes.
Cont’d

 At the Equator, the sun warms the water and land more
than it does the rest of the globe. Warm equatorial air
rises higher into the atmosphere and migrates toward
the poles. This is a low-pressure system. At the same
time, cooler, denser air moves over Earth’s surface
toward the Equator to replace the heated air. This is a
high-pressure system. Winds generally blow from high-
pressure areas to low-pressure areas.
 The boundary between these two areas is called a front.
The complex relationships between fronts cause
different types of wind and weather patterns.
Cont’d

*Variations in the distribution of pressure and


temperature are caused largely by unequal distribution
of heat from the sun, together with differences in the
thermal properties of land and ocean surfaces.

*When the temperature of adjacent regions become


unequal, the warmer air tends to rise and flow over the
colder and heavier air.

*Wind’s two principal properties are speed and


direction, and instruments measure each.

*An anemometer measures wind speed A wind vane


determines wind direction
Fig:4.1 Wind vane and anemometer. instruments used to
measure wind direction and speed at a weather station
installation.
Cont’d

*Winds are named for the direction from which they


originate. For example, a wind from the west is a
westerly wind (it blows eastward); a wind out of the
south is a southerly wind (it blows northward).
Factors controlling the speed and direction of
wind
1. Wind speed controls
* The speed of wind is controlled by two major factors
(1) pressure gradient and (2) frictional resistance it
encounters.
*Pressure Gradient (or isobaric slope): Pressure
Cont’d

*On air pressure map, the steepness of the


pressure gradient is indicated by the spacing of
Isobars (lines of equal air pressure).
*ii) The frictional resistance: The frictional
resistance provided by the earth’s surface is
also influenced by its degree of roughness. For
example, a forested mountainous surface
generates a high degree of friction and wind
speeds are correspondingly much reduced
Cont’d

4.2.1.1 Global surface wind Belts


(the wind system)
*The global surface wind belts are the
largest units of the earth’s surface wind
system.
*They are closely associated with the
world pressure belts, and have many
features in common.
Cont’d

*Three prevailing winds blow around the planet ground level


on either side of the equator. Planetary (Global) winds include
i. The trade winds
ii. The prevailing westerlies
iii. The polar easterlies
i. Trade winds: - are winds that dominate the zones
between 50 and 250N and S.
*They are generated by the pressure gradient between the
sub-tropical highs of each hemisphere and the low pressure of
the ITCZ.
ii. The prevailing westerlies: - Occupying the zone
between the sub-tropical highs and the sub-polar lows of each
Cont’d

*They dominate the zones from 350 to 600 N and S,


taking the 2nd place in total area it covers.
*iii) The polar easterlies: - The polar easterlies, which
come from the east direction, dominates the latitudinal
zone between 650 and 800 N and S, it exists because of
the pressure gradient between the polar highs and the
sub-polar lows.
*In the vicinity of 800 to 900 north and South Pole, there
are poorly developed wind systems that ideally form
roughly circular caps.
Cont’d
Cont’d

Regional and local winds


i. Regional winds

*The most important of the world regional winds which


are not associated with the semi permanent global
wind belts are the monsoons.

*Monsoon is a seasonally reversing wind system


produced by differing thermal characteristics of
continents of land and oceans.

*During the summer, land areas that experience a


monsoon are strongly heated by the sun, and thereby
become areas of low pressure (e.g. South East Asia).
Cont’d

ii) Local winds


*Corresponding to the seasonal variations in temperature and
pressure over land and water, diurnal changes, which exercise a
similar but more local effect occur.
* Especially, in the summer, the land is warmer than the sea by
day and colder than the sea by night.
*The variations of pressure thus, induced evoke a system of
breezes directed landward during the daytime and seaward at
night.
*These land and sea breezes penetrate to a distance of about
50 km (about 30 mi) on and off the shore.
*Other winds induced by local phenomena include whirlwinds
Cont’d

A) Mountain and valley breezes

*Mountain and valley breezes occur in areas of rugged


terrain under conditions of fair weather and weak pressure
gradient.

* They are thermally generated local winds that undergo a


daily reversal in direction.

*During the day, the mountain slopes, especially those


inclined towards the sun’s rays, are heated strongly.

* This warms the overlying air, which becomes buoyant and


begins to drift upslope producing a valley breeze.

*Valley breeze, therefore, refers to wind that blow from a


Cont’d

B) Katabatic winds: are winds associated with a mountain


breeze. Although any down slope wind is technically a katabatic
wind, the name is usually reserved for down slope winds that are
much stronger than mountain breezes.
C) Land and sea breezes
 These winds are common along coastal areas. These winds
change their directions daily and affect very small areas.
 During the daytime, temperature on the land is higher than
on the water/sea. So low pressure is formed on the land, while
it is relatively high on the sea. Wind blows from the sea
towards the land. This is known as a sea breeze.
 At night the land is colder than the sea. So low pressure
develops over the sea. The wind blows from land towards the
Cont’d

4.3 Air mass and Fronts


An air mass is an extremely large body of air whose
properties of temperature and humidity are fairly similar in
any horizontal direction at any given altitude.
Regions where air masses originate are known as source
regions.
Air masses are usually classified according to their
temperature and humidity.
There are cold and warm air masses, humid and dry air
Cont’d

A front is the transition zone between two air masses of


different densities.
Since density differences are most often caused by
temperature differences, fronts usually separate air masses
with contrasting temperatures.
Remember that air masses have both horizontal and vertical
extent; consequently, the upward extension of a front is
referred to as a frontal surface, or a frontal zone.
Cont’d

4.4.2 Cyclones and Anticyclones


Near the ground, where the winds are slowed by friction the air blows
at an acute angle toward areas of low pressure creating cyclones and
anticyclones.
Cyclones: are atmospheric disturbances which involve a closed
circulation about a low pressure center. They are Inward spiral of air. In
the Northern Hemisphere the coriolis force causes air in low pressure
areas to spiral counter clockwise (anticlockwise). Spirals clockwise
southern hemisphere. Cyclones are commonly known as lows or low
pressure areas.
Cont’d

Anticyclones: is weather phenomenon defined as a large


scale circulation of winds around a central regions of high
atmospheric pressure. They are outward spiral of air. The
winds spirals in anticlockwise direction in the southern
hemisphere and clockwise direction in the northern
hemisphere. Anticylones are commonly known as Highs or
high pressure areas.
Cont’d

4.4.3 Hurricanes, Thunderstorms and Tornadoes


Hurricanes are rapidly rotating storm systems that form
over tropical or subtropical oceans and are characterized by
low-pressure centers, strong winds, and intense convective
thunderstorms that produce heavy rains.
- Unlike midlatitude cyclones, hurricanes lack contrasting air
masses and fronts, and they are not powered by the
temperature and moisture contrasts that drive midlatitude
storms.
Cont’d

 Rather, the main source of energy that produces and


maintains hurricane-force winds is the huge volume of
warm, moist air (and hence latent heat) transferred
from a warm tropical ocean to the atmosphere above.
- These intense tropical storms are known in various
parts of the world by different names. In the
northwestern Pacific, they are called typhoons; in the
southwestern Pacific and the Indian Ocean, they are
called cyclones.
Cont’d

- A thunderstorm is a storm that generates


lightning and thunder.
It may also produce gusty winds, heavy rain,
hail, and possibly a tornado.
A tornado is a violently rotating column of air
in contact with the ground.
The air column is visible when it contains
condensation or when it contains dust and
debris. Often the appearance is a result of
Cont’d

4.4.4 El Nino and La Nina


The El Niño – Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a
recurring climate pattern involving changes in
the temperature of waters in the central and
eastern tropical Pacific Ocean and the patterns
of sea level pressure, lower- and upper-level
winds, and tropical rainfall across the Pacific
basin.
- El Niño and La Niña are opposite phases of
Cont’d

 The ENSO cycle describes the fluctuations in temperature


between the ocean and atmosphere in the east central
Equatorial Pacific.
- The term El Niño refers to the large-scale ocean-
atmosphere climate interaction linked to a periodic
warming in sea surface temperatures across the central and
east-central Equatorial Pacific.
- La Niña episodes represent periods of below-average sea
surface temperatures across the east-central Equatorial
Cont’d

- La Niña is sometimes referred to as


the cold phase of ENSO and El Niño as
the warm phase of ENSO. These
deviations from normal surface
temperatures can have large-scale
impacts not only on ocean processes,
but also on global weather and
Cont’d

 Chapter Five Atmospheric humidity and precipitation


5.1 Concepts of atmospheric humidity, evaporation and precipitation.
The amount of water vapor present in air, referred to as humidity, varies
widely from place to place and time to time.
In the cold, dry air of arctic regions in winter, the humidity is almost zero,
while it can reach up to as much as 3 to 4 percent of a given volume of air in
the warm wet regions near the Equator.

The amount of atmospheric water vapor content can be stated in a variety of


ways. The most commonly used measurements in the atmospheric sciences
are:
Cont’d

1) Absolute humidity

*Absolute humidity represents the density of water vapor in air parcel,


and normally is expressed as gram of water vapor in a cubic meter of
air.

2) Specific humidity: The actual quantity of water vapor contained


within a parcel of air is known as its specific humidity and is expressed
as grams of water vapor per kilogram of air (g/kg).

The equation for specific humidity is given as:


Cont’d

3. Mixing ratio: - is the ratio of the mass of water vapor per unit mass
of dry air. It is expressed as gram of water vapor per kilogram of dry
air (g/kg).
Dry air includes such gasses like oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen and
others.
Cont’d
4) Relative humidity: - the relative humidity is the ratio of the amount
of water vapor actually present in the air to the maximum amount of
water vapor required by air parcel for saturation at that particular
temperature (and pressure)

Evaporation is the net loss of water from a liquid surface that results
from a phase change from a liquid to a vapor.

*The amount of water evaporated from any point is controlled by:


I. The availability of water
II. The temperature of surface water
III. The temperature and water vapor content of the air overlying the
surface, and speed of wind.
Cont’d

Precipitation is defined as liquid or solid condensation of water vapor


falling from clouds or deposited from air onto the ground.

Precipitation is the primary source of the earth's water supplies.


Precipitation provides the freshwater essential for terrestrial life
forms.
*Annual rates of precipitation vary greatly around the world.
5.2 Evapo-transpiration
*Evaporation is the phase change from a liquid to a gas releasing water
from a wet surface into the air above. Similarly, transpiration represents
a phase change when water is released into the air by plants.
Cont’d

*Evapotranspiration is the combined transfer of water into the air by


evaporation and transpiration.
*The equipment for measuring evaporation are generally called
evaporimeters.
5.3 Cloud formation and type
Clouds are a form of condensation scientifically described as visible
aggregates of droplets of water or of tiny crystals of ice.
 Cloud is a condensed form of atmospheric moisture consisting of
small water droplets, tiny ice crystals or a mixture of both along with
varying amounts of dust particles.
 Clouds are the principal visible phenomena of the atmosphere.
 The formation of clouds is caused by cooling of the air and involves
the condensation of invisible water vapor that produces visible
water droplets or ice particles.
 The French naturalist Lamarck (1744-1829), proposed the first system for
classifying clouds in 1802 though his work did not receive wide acclaim. A
cloud classification system developed by the English naturalist Luke
Howard has got general acceptance.

 Howard's system uses Latin words to describe clouds as they appear to


an observer on the ground.

High wispy clouds are called cirrus (from the Latin word for curl of hair);
Sheet like clouds are called stratus (from the Latin word for layer);
Billowing, puffy clouds are called cumulus (from the Latin word for heap);
Rain-producing clouds are called nimbus (from the Latin word for rain).
*5.4 Precipitation
*Precipitation is defined as liquid or solid condensation of water
vapor falling from clouds or deposited from air onto the ground.

*Precipitation is the primary source of the earth's water supplies.


*Precipitation includes not only rain but also snow, sleet, freezing
rain, and ice. Annual rates of precipitation vary greatly around
the world.

Precipitation formation processes

Precipitation is formed as cloud water droplets or ice crystals


become large enough for gravity to cause them to fall towards the
earth's surface.

Cloud droplets grow by means of collision and coalescence /


coming together/. Ice crystals grow by sublimation.
Forms of Precipitation
*The two forms of liquid precipitation are rain and
drizzle. The major forms of frozen solid
precipitation are snow, hail and sleet.
Rain: which accounts about 90 percent of the
earth's precipitation consist of liquid drops with
diameter of at least 0.5mm, while drizzle consists
of droplets with diameters less than 0.5 mm.
*Rain falling onto a subfreezing surface will
freeze readily on contact with whatever object it
strikes to form a solid precipitation.
Sleet: is formed when raindrops fall through a
layer of air below -3°C and freeze. Sleets consist
of small, hard pallets of ice which bounce when
strike the round.
Snow: the most common form of solid precipitation,
comprising nearly a tenth of the earth's precipitation
total, is snow. Snow consists of crystalline ice formed
directly from water vapor. Snow grains are small and
opaque. They are fairly flat or elongated.

Precipitation types

On the basis of the factors that cause moisture bearing


air to rise, we divide precipitation into three:

1. Convectional precipitation: results from the


heating of the earth's surface. The warm ground
heats the air over it. As the air warms, the air
With increased distance between molecules, the
molecules are less densely packed. Thus, the air
becomes “lighter” and rises rapidly into the
atmosphere. As the air rises, it cools. Water vapor
in the air condenses into clouds and precipitation.

2. Orographic precipitation: results when warm


moist air moving across the ocean is forced to rise
by large mountains.

3. Cyclonic or Frontal precipitation: results


when the leading edge of a warm, moist air mass
The molecules in the cold air are more
tightly packed together (i.e., more dense),
and thus, the cold air is heavier than the
warm air.

The warmer air mass is forced up over the


cool air. As it rises, the warm air cools, the
water vapor in the air condenses, and
clouds and precipitation result.

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