CHAPTER 6: The

Skeletal System
& Movement:
 Objectives:
•Describe bone formation.
•Outline classification of bones.
•Describe joints and movement.
Is this the correct anatomical position?
• Overview of the skeleton and movement:
A. Movements such as throwing a ball, biking, and
walking require interactions between bones and
muscles.

 Together, the bones, muscles, and joints form an

integrated system called the musculoskeletal
system.

 The branch of medical science concerned with the

prevention or correction of disorders of the
musculoskeletal system is called orthopedics
 Bones of the Human Body
 The skeleton has 206 bones
 Two basic types of bone tissue
a) Compact bone
 Homogeneous
b) Spongy bone
 Small needle-like
pieces of bone
Figure 5.2b

 Many open spaces

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• The skeleton makes up about 30-40% of an
adult’s body mass.
• The skeleton’s mass is made up of
nonliving bone matrix and many tiny bone
cells.
• Roughly half of the bone matrix’s mass is
water, while the other half is collagen
protein and solid crystals of calcium
carbonate and calcium phosphate.
• Living bone cells are found on the edges of
bones and in small cavities inside of the bone
matrix.
• The bone cells allow bones to:
 Grow and develop
 Be repaired following an injury or daily wear
 Be broken down to release their stored
minerals
 Types of Bone Cells
Osteocytes
 Mature bone cells
Osteoblasts
 Bone-forming cells
Osteoclasts
 Bone-destroying cells
 Break down bone matrix for remodeling and
release of calcium
Note: Bone remodeling is a process by both
osteoblasts and osteoclasts
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At birth, each bone is made of three individual
bones separated by hyaline cartilage.
Each end bone is called an epiphysis (epi = on;
physis = to grow) while the middle bone is
called a diaphysis (dia = passing through).
The epiphysis and diaphysis grow towards one
another and eventually fuse into one bone.
The region of growth and eventual fusion in
between the epiphysis and diaphysis is called
the metaphysis (meta = after).
Once the long bone parts have fused together,
the only hyaline cartilage left in the bone is
found as articular cartilage on the ends of the
bone that form joints with other bones.
The articular cartilage acts as a shock absorber
and gliding surface between the bones to
facilitate movement at the joint.
Looking at a bone in cross section, there are
several distinct layered regions that make up a
bone.
The outside of a bone is covered in a thin layer of
dense connective tissue called the periosteum.
The periosteum contains many strong collagen
fibers that are used to firmly anchor tendons and
muscles to the bone for movement.
Stem cells and osteoblast cells in the periosteum
are involved in the growth and repair of the outside
of the bone due to stress and injury.
Blood vessels present in the periosteum provide
energy to the cells on the surface of the bone and
penetrate into the bone itself to nourish the cells
inside of the bone.
The periosteum also contains nervous tissue and
many nerve endings to give bone its sensitivity to
pain when injured.
Deep to the periosteum is the compact bone that
makes up the hard, mineralized portion of the
bone.
Compact bone is made of a matrix of hard
mineral salts reinforced with tough collagen
fibers. Many tiny cells called osteocytes live in
small spaces in the matrix and help to maintain
the strength and integrity of the compact bone.
Deep to the compact bone layer is a region of
spongy bone where the bone tissue grows in thin
columns called trabeculae with spaces for red
bone marrow in between.
The trabeculae grow in a specific pattern to
resist outside stresses with the least amount of
mass possible, keeping bones light but strong.
Long bones have a spongy bone on their ends
but have a hollow medullary cavity in the
middle of the diaphysis that contains red bone
marrow during childhood, eventually turning
into yellow bone marrow after puberty.
 Gross Anatomy of a Long Bone

Diaphysis
 Shaft Composed of
compact bone
Epiphysis
 Ends of the bone
Composed mostly of
spongy bone

Figure 5.2a

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Bones are classified
by their shape:

1.long
2.short
3.flat
4.irregular
 Classification of Bones on the
Basis of Shape

Figure 5.1

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 Classification of Bones

1. Long bones
 Typically longer than wide
 Have a shaft with heads at both ends
 Contain mostly compact bone
• Examples: Femur, humerus, tibia, fibula,
radius, ulna, metatarsals, phalanges
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 Classification of Bones ctd…

2. Short bones
 Generally cube-shape or round
 Contain mostly spongy bone
 Examples: Carpals, tarsals

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 Classification of Bones ctd..

3. Flat bones
 Thin and flattened
 Usually curved
 Thin layers of compact bone around a layer
of spongy bone
 Examples: Skull, ribs, sternum, hip bones

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Classification of Bones ctd..

4. Irregular bones
 Irregular shape
 Do not fit into other bone classification
categories
 Example: Vertebrae, sacrum, coccyx,
zygomatic and some cranial bones

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Classification of Bones ctd..

5. Sesamoid bones (not present in all

people)
 Formed after birth inside of tendons that
run across joints
 grow to protect the tendon from stresses
and strains at the joint
 Example: patella and some in hands &
feet
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
 Changes in the Human Skeleton
 In embryos, the skeleton is primarily hyaline
cartilage
 During development, much of this cartilage
is replaced by bone
 Cartilage remains in isolated areas
 Bridge of the nose
 Parts of ribs
 Joints
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
 Joints
• Fibrous-Fibrous joints connect bones without
allowing any movement. The bones of your
skull and pelvis are held together by fibrous
joints.
• Cartilaginous-Cartilaginous joints are joints
in which the bones are attached by cartilage.
These joints allow for only a little movement,
such as in the spine or ribs.
• Synovial-Synovial joints allow for much more
movement than cartilaginous joints. Cavities
between bones in synovial joints are filled
with synovial fluid. This fluid helps lubricate
and protect the bones. Bursa sacks contain
the synovial fluid. within fixed limits
 The Synovial Joint

Figure 5.28

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 5.51
• A joint, or articulation, is the
place where two bones come
together.

• There are three types of

joints classified by the
amount of movement they
allow:
 Immovable
 slightly movable
 freely movable
 Types of Joints
Hinge- A hinge joint allows extension and
retraction of an appendage. (Elbow,
Knee)
Ball and Socket- A ball and socket joint
allows for radial movement in almost
any direction. They are found in the hips
and shoulders. (Hip, Shoulder)
Gliding- In a gliding or plane joint bones
slide past each other. Mid-carpal and mid-
tarsal joints are gliding joints. (Hands,
Feet)
Saddle- This type of joint occurs when
the touching surfaces of two bones have
both concave and convex regions with
the shapes of the two bones
complementing one other and allowing
a wide range of movement. (Thumb)
 Bone Diseases:
Osteoporosis
• Osteoporosis is a term that means
"porous bones." It is a skeletal disease
affecting women and men. Osteoporosis
is a condition in which bones have lost
minerals especially calcium ﾑ making
them weaker, more brittle, and
susceptible to fractures (broken bones).
Any bone in the body can be affected by
osteoporosis, but the most common
places where fractures occur are the
back (spine), hips, and wrists.
Risk factors for osteoporosis

Inadequate calcium
Little weight-bearing exercise
Drinking alcohol, smoking
Being female: decreased estrogen secretion
after menopause
Small frame
Caucasian or Asian ethnicity
 Scoliosis
• Scoliosis is an abnormal curvature of
the spine. If your child has scoliosis, the
view from behind may reveal one or
more abnormal curves.Scoliosis runs in
families, but doctors often don't know
the cause. More girls than boys have
severe scoliosis. Adult scoliosis may be
a worsening of a condition that began in
childhood, but wasn't diagnosed or
treated. In other cases, scoliosis may
result from a degenerative joint
condition in the spine.
 Kyphosis
• With kyphosis, your spine may look
normal or you may develop a hump.
Kyphosis can occur as a result of
developmental problems; degenerative
diseases, such as arthritis of the spine;
osteoporosis with compression fractures
of the vertebrae; or trauma to the spine.
It can affect children, adolescents and
adults.
 Lordosis
• A normal spine, when viewed from
behind appears straight. However,
a spine affected by lordosis shows
evidence of a curvature of the
back bones (vertebrae) in the
lower back area, giving the child a
"swayback" appearance.
 Rickets
• Rickets is the softening and
weakening of bones in children,
usually because of an extreme and
prolonged vitamin D deficiency.
• Some skeletal deformities caused
by rickets may need corrective
surgery.
 Scurvy
• The human body lacks the ability to
synthesize and make vitamin C and
therefore depends on exogenous dietary
sources to meet vitamin C needs.
Consumption of fruits and vegetables or
diets fortified with vitamin C are
essential to avoid ascorbic acid
deficiency. Even though scurvy is
uncommon, it still occurs and can affect
adults and children who have chronic
dietary vitamin C deficiency.
 Gout
• Gout is a disease that results from an
overload of uric acid in the body. This
overload of uric acid leads to the
formation of tiny crystals of urate that
deposit in tissues of the body, especially
the joints. When crystals form in the joints
it causes recurring attacks of joint
inflammation (arthritis). Chronic gout can
also lead to deposits of hard lumps of uric
acid in and around the joints and may
cause joint destruction, decreased kidney
function, and kidney stones.
 Acromegaly
• Acromegaly is a serious condition that occurs
when the body produces too much of the
hormones that control growth. ･ The hormone
most often affected is called growth hormone,
or GH. It ﾊ is produced by the pituitary gland, a
tiny organ at the base of the brain. ･･ Growth
hormone ﾊ promotes growth of bone, cartilage,
muscle, organs, and other tissues. ･･ When
there is too much growth hormone in the body,
these tissues grow larger than normal. This
excessive growth can cause serious disease
and even premature death.
 Poliomyelitis
• Poliomyelitis (polio) is a highly infectious disease caused by a
virus. It invades the nervous system, and can cause total
paralysis in a matter of hours. It can strike at any age, but affects
mainly children under three (over 50% of all cases). The virus
enters the body through the mouth and multiplies in the
intestine. Initial symptoms are fever, fatigue, headache, vomiting,
stiffness in the neck and pain in the limbs. One in 200 infections
leads to irreversible paralysis (usually in the legs). Amongst those
paralysed, 5%-10% die when their breathing muscles become
immobilized. Although polio paralysis is the most visible sign of
polio infection, fewer than 1% of polio infections ever result in
paralysis. Poliovirus can spread widely before cases of paralysis
are seen. As most people infected with poliovirus have no signs of
illness, they are never aware they have been infected. After initial
infection with poliovirus, the virus is shed intermittently in faeces
(excrement) for several weeks. During that time, polio can spread
rapidly through the community.
 Spina Bifida
• Spina bifida is a birth defect that involves
the incomplete development of the spinal
cord or its coverings. The term spina
bifida comes from Latin and literally
means "split" or "open" spine.Spina bifida
occurs at the end of the first month of
pregnancy when the two sides of the ﾊ
embryo's spine fail to join together,
leaving an open area. In some cases, the
spinal cord or other membranes may
push through this opening in the back.
The condition usually is ﾊ detected before
a baby is born and treated right away.
 “Clubfoot”
• Clubfoot is a deformity of the whole foot
that is present at birth. There are several
types of clubfoot that are jointly known as
'talipes', as the deformity is mostly in the
talus (a bone in the ankle). The most
common of the talipes is what is known as
"talipes equino varus" - it is so common
that the word clubfoot is commonly used
to refer to this. In talipes equino varus,
the child is born with the foot pointing
down and twisted inwards at the ankle.
 Leukemia
• Leukemia is cancer of the blood cells. It starts
in the bone marrow, the soft tissue inside most
bones. Bone marrow is where blood cells are
made.When healthy, bone marrow makes: ･
White blood cells, which help body fight
infection. ･ Red blood cells, which carry
oxygen to all parts of the body. ･ Platelets,
which help blood clot.When one has
leukemia, the bone marrow starts to make a
lot of abnormal white blood cells, called
leukemia cells. They don't do the work of
normal white blood cells, they grow faster than
normal cells, and they don't stop growing
when they should.
Bone Marrow Biopsy
 CHECKPOINT:

Which of the following structures are part of

the axial skeleton, and which are part of the
appendicular skeleton?

Skull, clavicle, vertebral column, shoulder

girdle, humerus, pelvic girdle, and femur.
 INQUIRY

1. What does the secondary site of ossification

produce?
2. What is an epiphyseal line?
3. Provide an example of a flat bone?
4. Name types of bone cells.
5. How many bones in the adult skeleton?
6. What does an osteoblast do and where are they
primarily found?

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