TN 213 – ANALOG ELECTRONICS I

LECTURE ONE
Biasing of BJTs

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 Course Contents

 Biasing of BJT and FETs:

Operating point (Q-point), fixed bias, emitter stabilized

bias, bias with feedback, bias stabilization,
temperature stability, stability factor, transistors
current, voltage and power ratings.
 BJT and FET small-signal analysis:

Small signal equivalent circuit of BJT and FETs, r-

parameters, y-parameters, complete and approximate
hybrid equivalent circuits.
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 Course Contents

 Analysis of analogue electronic circuits:

Single stage amplifiers, ac load line analysis, small

signal equivalent circuit of single stage amplifiers (CB,
CC, CE) ac voltage gain, ac current gain, power gain,
gain in decibel (dB), input and output impedance,
frequency response, effect of bypass capacitor, cut-off
frequency and effect of coupling capacitor.
 CAD of analogue circuits

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 Recommended References/Textbooks

 1. Peter H. Beards, “Analog and Digital Electronics: A

First Course”, Prentice Hall, 2nd ed., 2002
 2. Anwar A. Khan, Kanchan K. Dev, “A First Course in
Electronics”, Prentice Hall of India Pvt Ltd, 2006
 3. Thomas L. Floyd, “Electronic Devices,” Maxwell
Macmillan, 3rd ed., 1992
 4. “ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUIT THEORY
SEVENTH EDITION” by ROBERT BOYLESTAD and
LOUIS NASHELSKY.
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 Bipolar Junction Transistors

The name transistor comes from the phrase

transferring an electrical signal across a resistor.
 In this lecture we will discuss two types of
transistors:
 The Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT): is an active
device. In simple terms, it is a current controlled valve.
The base current (IB) controls the collector current (IC).

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 Regions of BJT operation

 Cut-off region: The transistor is off. There is no

conduction between the collector and the emitter. (IB =

0 therefore IC = 0)

 Active region: The transistor is on. The collector

current is proportional to and controlled by the base
current (IC = βIB) and relatively insensitive to VCE. In
this region the transistor can be an amplifier.

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 Regions of BJT operation

 Saturation region: The transistor is on. The collector

current varies very little with a change in the base
current in the saturation region. The VCE is small, a few
tenths of volt. The collector current is strongly
dependent on VCE unlike in the active region.

 It is desirable to operate transistor switches in or

near the saturation region when in their on state

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 Rules for Bipolar Junction Transistors

 For an NPN transistor, the voltage at the collector VC

must be greater than the voltage at the emitter VE by

at least a few tenths of a volt; otherwise, current will
not flow through the collector-emitter junction, no
matter what the applied voltage at the base.

 For PNP transistors, the emitter voltage must be

greater than the collector voltage by a similar amount.

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 Rules for Bipolar Junction Transistors

 For the NPN transistor, there is a voltage drop from

the base to the emitter of 0.7 V.
 For a PNP transistor, there is also a 0.7 V rise from the
base to the emitter.
 In terms of operation, this means that the base voltage
VB of an NPN transistor must be at least 0.7 V greater
that the emitter voltage VE; otherwise, the transistor
will not pass emitter-to-collector current.
 For a PNP transistor, VB must be at least 0.7 V less
than VE; otherwise, it will not pass collector-to-emitter
current.
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 Basic Equations for BJT
 For NPN:

VB > VE + 0.7V

 For PNP:

VB < VE - 0.7V

 For both NPN and PNP any time

IE = I B + I C

 For both NPN and PNP only in the active region

IC =  IB = IB

IE = IB + IC = (+1)IB = IB 10
 Types of Bias

 One of the basic problems with transistor amplifiers is

establishing and maintaining the proper values of
quiescent current and voltage in the circuit.
 This is accomplished by selecting the proper circuit-
biasing conditions and ensuring these conditions are
maintained despite variations in ambient (surrounding)
temperature, which cause changes in amplification
and even distortion (an unwanted change in a signal).

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 Types of Bias

 Thus a need arises for a method to properly bias the

transistor amplifier and at the same time stabilize
its dc operating point (the no signal values of
collector voltage and collector current).
 As mentioned earlier, various biasing methods can be
used to accomplish both of these functions. Although
there are numerous biasing methods, only three basic
types will be considered in this lecture.

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 Base-Current Bias (Fixed Bias)
 The first biasing method, called BASE CURRENT
BIAS or sometimes FIXED BIAS, is used as in the
following figure.
 As you recall, it consisted basically of a resistor (RB)
connected between the collector supply voltage and
the base.
 Unfortunately, this simple arrangement is quite
thermally unstable. If the temperature of the
transistor rises for any reason (due to a rise in ambient
temperature or due to current flow through it),
collector current will increase.
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Base-Current Bias (Fixed Bias)

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 Base-Current Bias (Fixed Bias)

 This increase in current also causes the dc operating

point, sometimes called the quiescent or static point,
to move away from its desired position (level).

 This reaction to temperature is undesirable because it

affects amplifier gain (the number of times of
amplification) and could result in distortion.

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 Self-Bias
 A better method of biasing is obtained by inserting the
bias resistor directly between the base and collector,
as shown in the following figure.
 By tying the collector to the base in this manner,
feedback voltage can be fed from the collector to the
base to develop forward bias. This arrangement is
called SELF-BIAS.
 Now, if an increase of temperature causes an increase
in collector current, the collector voltage (VC) will fall
because of the increase of voltage produced across
the load resistor (RL).
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Self-Bias

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 Self-Bias

 This drop in VC will be fed back to the base and will

result in a decrease in the base current. The decrease

in base current will oppose the original increase in
collector current and tend to stabilize it. The exact
opposite effect is produced when the collector current
decreases

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 Self-Bias
 Self-bias has two small drawbacks:
(1) It is only partially effective and, therefore, is only used
where moderate changes in ambient temperature are
expected;
(2) It reduces amplification since the signal on the
collector also affects the base voltage. This is because
the collector and base signals for this particular
amplifier configuration are 180 degrees out of phase
(opposite in polarity) and the part of the collector
signal that is fed back to the base cancels some of the
input signal.
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 Self-Bias

 This process of returning a part of the output back to

its input is known as DEGENERATION or NEGATIVE
FEEDBACK.
 Sometimes degeneration is desired to prevent
amplitude distortion (an output signal that fails to
follow the input exactly) and self-bias may be used for
this purpose.

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 Combination Bias
 A combination of fixed and self-bias can be used to
improve stability and at the same time overcome some
of the disadvantages of the other two biasing methods.
 One of the most widely used combination-bias
systems is the voltage-divider type shown in the
following figure.
 Fixed bias is provided in this circuit by the voltage-
divider network consisting of R1, R2, and the collector
supply voltage (VCC).
 The dc current flowing through the voltage-divider
network biases the base positive with respect to the
emitter. 21
 Combination Bias
 Resistor R3, which is connected in series with the
emitter, provides the emitter with self-bias. Should IE
increase, the voltage drop across R3 would also
increase, reducing VC. This reaction to an increase in
IE by R3 is another form of degeneration, which results
in less output from the amplifier.
 However, to provide long-term or dc thermal stability,
and at the same time, allow minimal ac signal
degeneration, the bypass capacitor (Cbp) is placed
across R3. If Cbp is large enough, rapid signal
variations will not change its charge materially and no
degeneration of the signal will occur.
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Combination Bias

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 Combination Bias

 In summary, the fixed-bias resistors, R1 and R2, tend

to keep the base bias constant while the emitter bias
changes with emitter conduction.

 This action greatly improves thermal stability and at

the same time maintains the correct operating point for
the transistor.

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 Example, find VB, VE, IE, IC and VCE and the biasing
point of the circuit shown below;

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 Example 2, find VB, VE, IE, IC and VCE and the
biasing point of the circuit shown below if the PNP
transistor is used.

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 Review Questions

 Which biasing method is the most unstable?

 What type of bias is used where only moderate

changes in ambient temperature are expected?

 When is degeneration tolerable in an amplifier?

 What is the most widely used combination-bias

system?

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