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Module 3

MODULE - 3
Traffic control devices
Various aids and devices used to control, regulate and guide traffic may be
called traffic control devices. Most common devices are:

1. Signs
2. Signals
3. Markings
4. Islands
Traffic control devices
1. Traffic Signs
• Traffic signs should be backed by law. The should be placed such that they
could be seen and recognized by road users easily and in time.
• Signs should be kept 0.6m away from edge for pavements with kerbs and
should be kept 2 to 3m away from pavements without raised kerbs.
• Signs should be mounted on sign posts.
• Types of signs:
a) Regulatory signs
b) Warning signs
c) Informatory signs
Traffic control devices
1. Traffic Signs
a) Regulatory signs
i. Stop and give way signs
Stop sign is intended to stop the vehicles on a roadway. It is octagonal in
shape and red in colour with white border. Give way sign is used to control
the vehicles on a road so as to give right of way to traffic on other roadways.
Give way sign is triangular in shape with apex downwards. It is white in
colour with red border.
ii. Prohibitory signs
Prohibitory signs are meant to prohibit certain traffic movements, use of
horns, entry of certain vehicle class etc. These signs are circular in shape and
white in colour with red border.
iii. No parking and no stopping signs
No parking sign is meant to prohibit vehicle parking. No parking sign is
circular in shape with a blue background, a red border and an oblique red bar
at an angle of 45°. No stopping sign is meant to prohibit stopping of vehicles
at a place. It is circular in shape with blue background, red border two
oblique red borders at 45°.
Traffic control devices
iv. Speed limit
Speed limit signs are meant to restrict the speed of all
or certain classes of vehicles. These signs are circular
in shape and have white background, red border and
black numerals.
v. Restriction ends sign
Restriction end signs are also circular with white
background and diagonal black band at 45°.
vi. Compulsory direction control and other signs
Compulsory direction control signs indicate by arrows,
the appropriate directions in which vehicles are
obliged to proceed. These signs are circular in shape
with blue background and white direction arrows.
Traffic control devices
1. Traffic Signs
b) Warning signs
• Warning signs are used to warn the road users of hazardous conditions that
exists on or adjacent to roadway.
• Shape is of equilateral triangle with apex upwards, white background,
red border and black symbol.
Traffic control devices
1. Traffic Signs
c) Informatory signs
• These signs are used to guide the road users along routes,
inform them of destination and distance and provide with
information to make travel easier, safe and pleasant.
• These signs include direction and place identification
signs, facility information signs, parking signs etc.
• Direction and place identification signs are rectangular
with white background, black border and black arrows
and letters.
Traffic control devices
2. Traffic Signals
• Traffic signals are control devices which could alternately direct the traffic to stop and proceed
at intersections using red, yellow(amber) and green traffic light signals automatically.
• Main requirement is to draw attention, provide meaning and time to respond and to have minimum waste
of time.
Advantages:
• Provide orderly movement and increase capacity of intersection.
• Reduce certain types of accidents.
• Pedestrians can cross road safely.
• If properly coordinated speed can be increased.
• Provide chances for minor road vehicles to cross the intersection.
• Automatic control will be economical than manual.
•Quality of flow is improved.
Disadvantages:
• Rear end collision may
increase.
• Improper design and
Traffic control devices
3. Traffic Markings
• Traffic markings are made of lines, patterns, words, symbols or
reflectors. They are provided to warn guide or regulate traffic.
Markings are made using paints in contrast with colour and
brightness of pavement or other background. Light reflecting
paints are usually used.
• Markings are classified as:
i. Pavement markings: Pavement markings are made of white
paint. Yellow colour is used to indicate parking restrictions
and for continuous centreline and barrierline markings.
ii. Kerb markings: These markings indicate regulations like
parking regulations. Markings on kerbs and islands with black
and white colour increases their visibility.
iii. Object markings: Physical obstructions on or near roadway are
hazardous and hence they are properly marked.
Traffic control devices
4. Traffic Islands
• Traffic islands include:
a) Divisional Islands: They are intended to separate opposingg flow of
traffic on a highway with four or more lanes. Head on collisions can be
avoided by the provision of divisional islands. They should be large enough
to avoid glare during night and should be high enough to prevent vehicles
entering on it.
b) Channelizing island
c) Rotary island
d) Pedestrian loading island
Traffic signals

 Traffic signals are one of the most effective and


flexible active control of traffic and is widely used in
several cities world wide.
 The conflicts arising from movements of traffic in
different directions is addressed by time sharing
principle.
Warrants for traffic signals

•Signals are installed if


Average traffic volume for eight hours on both approaches is at least
650 vehicles per hour (single lane) and 800 vph( 2 or more lanes)
The traffic volume on a major street is so heavy that traffic on a minor
intersecting street suffers excessive delay or hazard in entering or
crossing the major street
There is minimum pedestrian volume of 150 persons per hour crossing
a major street
Other accident prevention measures have failed to decrease the accident
frequency at the junction
A combination of the above mentioned factors exist at the intersection
Types of traffic signals
 Fixed time signals: Green periods and cycle lengths are pre-determined with fixed duration.
 Advantages:
1. Simple construction
2. Inexpensive
 Disadvantages:
1. Inflexible
2. Cause avoidable delay

Vehicle actuated signals: Green periods vary and are related to actual demands made by
traffic.
Advantages:
1. Flexible to adjust according to traffic demand.
2. Delay is minimized to attain maximum capacity.
 Disadvantages:
1. Require costly equipments such as detectors.
Types of traffic signals
Semi actuated signals: Detectors are located only on the main roads.
Advantages:
1. Useful for junctions of a low traffic volume.
Disadvantages:
1. High traffic accidents at times of light traffic.
Definitions of terms used in traffic signal design
• Cycle: The period of time required for one
complete sequence of signal indications.
• Phase: Part of cycle allocated to one or
combination of movements
• Interval: Discrete portion of signal cycle
during which an indication remains unchanged
• Green interval: It is the green indication for a particular movement or set
of movements. This is the actual duration the green light of a traffic signal
is turned on.
• Red Interval: It is the red indication for a particular movement or set of
movements This is the actual duration the red light of a traffic signal is
turned on.
• Change interval: It is also called the amber time indicates the interval
between the green and red signal indications for an approach.
• Clearance interval: It is also called all red time and is provided after each
yellow interval indicating a period during which all signal faces show red
and is used for clearing off the vehicles in the intersection.
• Lost time: It indicates the time during which the intersection is not
effectively utilized for any movement. For example, when the signal for
an approach turns from red to green, driver of the vehicle which is in the
front of the queue, will take some time to perceive the signal (usually
called as reaction time) and some time will be lost before vehicle
actually moves and gains speed.
Lost time per cycle = Lost time per phase x number of phase
• Saturation Flow (s): The maximum rate of flow of vehicles that can
pass through the intersection per unit time of effective green expressed
in PCU/hr.
• Observed Volume(q): The normal number of vehicles on a lane per unit time.
•Critical Flow Ratio (y): It is the ratio of observed volume to saturation flow
For 2 phase, we get 𝑦1 , 𝑦2
For 4 phase, we get 𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , 𝑦3 , 𝑦4
• Optimum Cycle Time, 𝐂𝐨 (By Webster’s method)
𝟏−
��=
� 𝟏.𝟓𝐋+𝟓
Where,𝐘L = Total lost time per cycle in

seconds L = l n +R
l is lost time per phase and is usually taken as
2 seconds.
nTherefore,
= numberLof= phase Green time, G =
2n +R
R = all red time A = Amber time = 2s
Y = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 + 𝑦3
𝑦1 1 𝑦𝑛
+…..+
𝑠
= 𝑞1
Problem 1
An isolated three phase traffic signal is designed by websters method. The critical flow ratios are 0.2, 0.3, 0.25
respectively. Lost time per phase is 4sec. Determine
i. Optimum cycle length
ii. Green interval

1.5 X 12
𝑦1 = Co
Given,
+51−0.7
= 92s
𝑦2 = 0.3 = 5

𝑦3=
0.2

0.25
l = 4s
n=
� �= 𝟏−
3��𝟏.𝟓𝐋+𝟓
L = l n𝐘+R = 4 x 3 = 12s
Y = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 + 𝑦3 = 0.2+0.3+0.25 =
0.75
Problem 2
The average normal flow of traffic on cross roads A and B during design period are 540and 420PCU/hr. The saturation
flow values on the roads A and B are estimated as 1400 and 1180 PCU/hr respectively. The all red time required for
pedestrian crossing is 12s. Design 2 phase traffic signal by webster’s method?

𝟏−
𝑞1 = 540
Given, ��=
�𝟏.𝟓𝐋+𝟓
L = l n𝐘+R = 2x2 + 12= 16s
Y = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 = 0.386+0.356 =

𝑞2= 420PCU/hr
PCU/hr 0.742

𝑠
1.5 X 16 +5
𝑠21== 1180PCU/hr
= 1−0.74
C0

𝑦1 � = 140
2
�1 54
1400PCU/hr
0
𝑠
= 0.386
𝑦= =
�21 0
=112s

2 420
=
𝑠2
� = 0.356
R= 1180
12s
l=2
n=2
Phase Diagram Signal Timing Diagram
B

Phase I
A

Phase II
A
Traffic engineering

04/12/2024 23
Traffic Studies

Surveys carried out to analyse traffic characteristics


Availability of high way transportation has contributed to a high standard of living
But there are several problems related to highway mode of transportation
Helps in deciding the geometric design feature and traffic control
Traffic surveys for collecting traffic data are so called traffic census

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These include
accidents,
parking
problems,
congestion, delay
etc
To reduce the
negative impact
it is essential to
collect
information that
describes the
extent
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TRAFFIC VOLUME STUDY
•Conducted to collect data on the number of vehicles that pass a point on highway during a
specified time period.

•Time period varies from as little as 15 minutes to as much as a year depending on the anticipated
use of data.

•Usually conducted when certain volume characteristics are needed such as

• AADT (Annual Average Daily Traffic)

• ADT (Average Daily Traffic)

• Peak Hour Volume


04/12/2024 26
• Vehicle classification etc
AADT – Average of 24 hour counts collected every day of the year
ADT – Average of 24 hour counts collected over a number of days (greater than
one but less than a year)
PHV – Maximum number of vehicles that pass a point on a highway during a period of
60 consecutive minutes
Vehicle Classification – record volume of vehicles with respect to class of vehicle

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Objectives and uses of
traffic volume studies

To understand
the efficiency at
which the system
works at present
and the general
quality of service
offered to road
users
To forecast the
future rate of
growth of traffic
which
04/12/2024 is an 28
important step in
Objectives and uses of
traffic volume studies

Structural
design of
pavements
requires data
pertaining to
no: of C V’s
For designing
traffic
regulatory and
control
systems
04/12/2024 29
Types of Counts

Short term
(during peak
hours)
Counts for full
day (24 hrs)
Counts for full
week (24 hrs,
7days)
Continuous
counts (24 hrs,
365 days)

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Traffic Volume Data Presentation

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Time Based Distribution Charts

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04/12/2024 33
TRAFFIC FLOW AT
INTERSECTION
Thirtieth highest Hourly Volume
• Design hourly volume
• Hourly volume that will be exceeded only 29 times in a year and all
other hourly volumes of the year will be less than this value

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DESIGN HOURLY
VOLUME

04/12/2024 36
Counting of Traffic Volume
Mechanical Counters
Pneumatic tubes
Electric Sensors
Radars
Infrared devices etc
Manual Counts
Combination of both Mechanical and Manual means

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Mechanical Devices

Pneumatic
tubes : They are
tubes fastened
across the
pavement. As
vehicles pass
over the tube, an
air (or pneumatic
pulse) is created
in the tube. This
pulse can be
sensed by
counters
04/12/2024 38
Manual Methods -
Advantages
Details such as
vehicle
classification and
vehicle
occupancy is
obtained
Breakdown of
traffic in each
direction is
obtained
Turning
movements can
be obtained
04/12/2024 39
Mechanical Methods -
Advantages
Accurate data
Suitable for
continuous and
regular record
For counting in
remote areas
Yield data which
are amenable to
easy analysis by
computers

04/12/2024 40
Methods of Conducting Volume Counts

04/12/2024 41
SPEED STUDIES

04/12/2024 42
SPEED STUDIES

Speed studies
can be divided
into two
Spot speed
studies
Speed and delay
studies

04/12/2024 43
SPOT SPEED STUDIES

04/12/2024 44
Spot Speed

Spot Speed :
Instantaneous
speed of a
vehicle at a
particular
location
Speed is defined
as the rate of
movement of
vehicle
Expressed in
km/hr
Carried
04/12/2024 out by 45
Need for Spot Speed
Studies
Establish
parameters for
traffic operation
and control (e.g.:
speed limits)
Evaluate the
effectiveness of
traffic control
devices
Monitor the
effect of speed
enforcement
programmes
04/12/2024 46
Methods for Spot Speed
Measurements

Manual
Enoscopes
Stop watches
Mechanical
Road detectors
Radar based
Electronic
principles

04/12/2024 47
Road detectors : pneumatic tubes and induction loops. These can be used to collect data
on speed at the same time as volume data is being collected
Pneumatic tubes:
Laid across the lane.
When speed is to be measured, two tubes are placed some distance apart.
As the vehicles pass over the tube, impulses are created.
The time difference between the two impulses and the distance between the tubes
can be used to calculate speed of the vehicle

04/12/2024 and 48
Inductive loop:
Buried under road surface.
A disturbance in electric field is created when a motor vehicle passes over it.
This causes a change in potential which will be amplified resulting in an impulse being sent to the counter
Radar
Works on the principle of doppler effect
The difference between the frequency of transmitted signal and reflected signal is proportional to change in
speed of the vehicle

04/12/2024 49
Methods for Spot Speed
Measurements

Road
Detectors
Inductive
loop

04/12/2024 50
Road Tubes for Collection of Spot Speed

Recorder
04/12/2024 51
Analysis of spot speed
data

Spot speed
studies are
used to
estimate
various speed
parameters of
the traffic
stream like
mean speed,
median speed,
modal
04/12/2024 speed, 52
Analysis of spot speed
data

Data collected
in spot speed
studies are
usually taken
only from a
sample of
vehicles which
are using the
section of
highway in
which
04/12/2024 the 53
Analysis of spot speed
data

Average
Speed:
Arithmetic
mean of all
observed
vehicle speeds
Median speed:
Speed at the
middle value
in a series of
spot
04/12/2024 speeds 54
Analysis of spot speed
data
ith percentile
speed: Speed
value below
which i percent
of vehicles travel
Eg: 85th percentile
speed: Speed
value below
which 85 % of
vehicles travel
Standard
deviation:
Measure of
spread
04/12/2024 of 55
SPEED AND DELAY STUDIES

04/12/2024 56
SPEED AND DELAY
STUDIES
Speed and delay studies give
Running speed
Journey speed
Fluctuations in speed
Delay between two stations spaced apart
The location, duration, frequency and causes of delay in a
traffic stream

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Need for Speed and
Delay Studies

In highway
economic
studies. Cost
of journey
depends on the
speed at which
it is made
For evaluating
congestion,
capacity, LOS
and need for
04/12/2024 58
METHODS OF
SPEED AND DELAY
STUDY
Moving observer
method
Registration
number method
Elevated
observer method
Interview
method

04/12/2024 59
Moving observer method
The speed and flow can be obtained by travelling in a car against and with the flow.
Registration number plate method
Observers are stationed at the ends of a measuring section
Time and registration number of vehicles entering and leaving the section are noted using synchronized watches
For rural highway sections
No information on delay

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Elevated observer method
The observers stationed at the top of an elevated building
The course of randomly selected vehicles along the road is followed.
Time of vehicle entering the test section, duration and nature of delays and time of leaving are noted
For short sections in central areas of a city.
Interview method
Interview the road users/drivers and get the perceived travel time and delays.

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MOVING
OBSERVER
METHOD
Most
commonly
used method
for speed and
delay studies
Requires
minimum of 3-
4 observers in
the test vehicle
To count the
opposing
04/12/2024 62
traffic
TYPICAL
OBSERVATION
FORMAT Vehicles in the same
Run Journey Stopped Vehicles in the direction
no. Direction time (mins) time (mins) opposing direction
Over-taking Over-taken

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TYPICAL
OBSERVATION
FORMAT Vehicles in the same
Run Journey Stopped Vehicles in the direction
no. Direction time (mins) time (mins) opposing direction
Over-taking Over-taken
1 N-S 6:32 1:40 268 4 7
2 S-N 7:14 1:50 186 5 3
3 N-S 6:50 1:30 280 5 3
4 S-N 7:40 2:00 200 2 1
5 N-S 6:10 1:10 250 3 5
6 S-N 8:00 2:22 170 2 2
7 N-S 6:28 1:40 290 2 5
8 S-N 7:30 1:40 160 3 2

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Vehicles in the same direction
Journey time Stopped time Vehicles in the
Direction
(mins) (mins) opposing direction
Over-taking Over-taken

6:32 1:40 268 4 7


6:50 1:30 280 5 3
N-S
6:10 1:10 250 3 5
6:28 1:40 290 2 5
TOTAL 26 mins 6 mins 1088 14 20
AVG 6min30 sec 1min30sec 272 3.5 5
7:14 1:50 186 5 3
7:40 2:00 200 2 1
S-N
8:00 2:22 170 2 2
7:30 1:40 160 3 2
TOTAL 30min24 sec 7min52sec 716 12 8
AVG 7min36secs 1min58sec 179 3 2
04/12/2024 65
ADVANTAGES

The moving
observer method
gives an
unbiased
estimate of the
flow
Data on speed
and flow are
collected at the
same time
It gives mean
values of flow
and speed over a
04/12/2024 66
DELAY

Delay is defined
as the extra time
spent by the
drivers against
their expectation
Delays
Stopped or fixed
delays – occur at
intersections,
railway crossings
and stop signs
Congestion or
operational
delays – caused
by the interaction
04/12/2024 67
of various factors
ORIGIN-DESTINATION STUDIES

In transportation studies it is essential to know


the exact origin and destination of trips.
Uses of O-D studies
Calculating the amount of bye-passable traffic
that enters a town.
Planning transportation systems and mass
transit facilities.
Locating terminals, intermediate stops etc for
public transport
In transportation planning: for trip generation
and trip distribution

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OD Surveys

Home interview survey


Most reliable survey for collecting O-D data
Data on travel pattern as well as general
characteristics of household which influence
trip making are collected from each member
of the household
No of trips made, their origin and destination,
purpose of trip, travel mode, time of
departure from origin , time of arrival at
destination etc are collected (data on travel
pattern)
No: of residents, age, sex, vehicle ownership,
income etc are also collected (household
characteristics)

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OD Surveys

Road-side
interview survey
Vehicles are
stopped and
questionnair
e given
Information
collected
includes
origin,
destination,
purpose of
trip, no: of
passengers
etc.
Post-card
12/04/2024 70
questionnaire

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