6th

Grade

Trade and Urbanization

Early Medieval India 750-
1200 CE
Soumya Mishra
23518063
B.A. History
(Hons.)
Sourc 1. Huge number of inscriptions
(tamrapatta). These copper plates

es
recorded transfer of revenue free
landed property by royal orders to
different kinds of donees.
2. Voluminous legal or theoretical
treaties such as the Dharma shastras
and creative literature in the works of
Kalidasa, Dasakumaracharita and
other Jaina texts.
3. Chinese accounts of Fa-hsien, Huien
Tsang, Chau ju Kua, Alberuni, are
some non-indigenous textual
materials of importance as source
materials for the history of trade,
especially the external trade of India.
 The extensive Gupta Empire and the
proliferation of monarchical states in
many new areas in North India in the

Introducti early medieval period was based on

a strong agrarian base. In fact, the
immense spread of agrarian economy

on during the period from CE 300 to

1300 has led to an impression that
the economy was greatly ruralised.
It is after CE 1000 that crafts,
commerce and urban centres seem
to have revived again after
undergoing a decline from CE 600-
1000. This perception has generated
a considerable scholarly controversy.
 Trade, Market Places and Urban
Centres
Politically North India and whole of the subcontinent
abounded in monarchical powers, but unlike the
powers of the pre 600 CE, none of the powers,
exercised paramount position over either North north
India, the Deccan or the far South. The political scene
is featured by the prevalence of regional powers of
great strength and many local powers. Another
notable character of the politico administrative setup
is the presence of numerous feudaries or Samantha's
of various grades and ranking. All these rulers issued
numerous land grants, which provide the main source
of information.
Mediev
al
Tradin
g and
Urban
Centre
s
 Third Urbanization

Increased practice of land grants led to the ruralisation

of the economy and brought an end to the Second
Urbanization-urban decay and decline in urban centres
in Indian history. Urban features began appearing in
pre 1000 CE period in many parts of India. Many urban
centres with trading links, streets, houses of
merchants, market places emerged on the scene. There
was resource mobilization, participation of religious
functionaries, holding of fairs, temple building
activities, trading in luxury and exotic items. These
features combined together led to the emergence of
urban centres in the Third phase of Urbanization.
 Urban Decay: Arguments
For off the economy after CE 600. The relevance of
The huge number of land grants implies a strong
ruralisation
craftsmen, merchants and urban centres appear to have
lessened. The decline in India's flourishing trade with the
Roman Empire adversely affected India's commercial
economy. It is also implied therefore that India's long
distance trade revived with the expanding Arab
commercial network.
Tamralipta, the premier port of the entire land locked
Ganga valley, eclipsed in the 8th century, mainly on
account of the siltation of the river on which it stood. The
port of Daibul came into limelight as an international post
after 10th century. The fading out of Tamralipta,
Barbaricum and Broach adversely affected long distance
trade
 Urban Decay: Arguments
For
There was paucity of coins of precious metals. Three
outstanding regional powers namely The Palas, The Senas
and the Rashtrakutas did not issue any coins. The Gurjara
Pratiharas struck silver coins but of doubtful weight
standard and metallic purity. The perception of "monetary
anaemia" affecting the erstwhile vibrant commercial
economy is strongly present in many historical researches.
The lack of coined money could have posed serious
problems for rulers to pay salaries to their officers. Under
such circumstances, the rulers had to assign lands to his
officers. This gave rise to secular land grants. As the
economy characterised as feudal, was steeped in ruralism
gave little scope to trade, it is supposed to have been
hardly conducive to urban growth.
Urban Decay: Arguments
Against
It is beyond doubt that the practice of land grants,
often issued with reference to lands lying in the
uncultivated, unsettled fallow teacts, paved the way
for unprecedented rural expansion. But does the
proliferation of agrarian settlements necessarily imply
consolidation of self sufficient and closed villages? Two
essential requirements, namely salt and iron, were not
available locally. If these items were to be procured
from non local sources, then serious doubts can be
raised about the perception of the self sufficiency and
closed nature of early medieval villages. Some ports,
trading centres and routes were witness to the
flourishing trade and commerce in this period.
 Factors shaping Urbanization and
1. The agrarian expansion of the early medieval period
Trade
was fundamental to urbanization. Land grants
(agraharas) and temple economies played a key role
in generating surpluses.
2. Religious patronage, particularly in temple-centered
economies, drove urban growth by acting as centers
of production and exchange.
3. The activities of merchant guilds ensured the
continuity and expansion of trade networks,
providing a stable institutional framework for
economic transactions.
4. India’s location as the centerpiece of the Indian
Ocean trade network facilitated economic and
cultural exchanges, contributing to the prosperity of
urban centers.
Historiographical Interpretations of
Trade and Urbanization
Decline Thesis: The Feudalism Framework
R. S. Sharma’s View
In Indian Feudalism (1980), R. S. Sharma argued that the
period witnessed the decline of urban centers due to the
rise of a feudal economy.
The proliferation of land grants (agraharas) reduced state
control over trade and taxation, leading to the
fragmentation of economic and administrative structures.
Long-distance trade diminished as regional economies
became more localized.
Urban decay followed the reduced role of towns as political
and administrative centers, as land became the primary
source of wealth.
Historiographical Interpretations of
Trade and Urbanization

Criticisms of Sharma’s Thesis

B. D. Chattopadhyaya, Hermann Kulke, and others
challenged the "uniform decline" narrative, highlighting
regional variations and the resilience of certain urban
centers, especially in South India.
Sharma’s emphasis on the “decline” of trade was
critiqued as overgeneralized, ignoring evidence of
vibrant maritime and regional trade .
Historiographical Interpretations of
Trade and Urbanization
Regional Continuity and Dynamism
B. D. Chattopadhyaya’s Revisionist Perspective
In The Making of Early Medieval India (1994),
Chattopadhyaya emphasized regional variations and
continuities in trade and urbanization.
He argued that urban decline was not universal and that
South Indian polities like the Cholas fostered trade-
driven urban growth.
Local market towns (nagaram) and temple-centered
economies contributed to urban vibrancy.
Chattopadhyaya rejected the feudalism framework as
inadequate for understanding the complexities of early
medieval economies.
Historiographical Interpretations of
Trade and Urbanization
Ranabir Chakravarti’s Maritime Perspective
In Trade and Traders in Early India (2002), Chakravarti
examined India’s participation in global maritime trade,
rejecting the notion of economic stagnation during the
early medieval period.
He highlighted the vibrancy of the Indian Ocean trade,
with ports like Tamralipti, Kollam, and Kaveripattinam
facilitating the export of textiles, spices, and
metalware.
Chakravarti emphasized the role of merchant guilds like
the Manigramam and Ayyavole 500 in maintaining trans-
regional and international trade links.
Historiographical Interpretations of
Trade
Eaton and and
the Role Urbanization
of Temples
Richard Eaton, in works like Temple Desecration and
Muslim States in Medieval India (2004), analyzed the
economic role of temples as centers of production,
wealth accumulation, and redistribution.
Temples acted as landlords, employing artisans and
laborers, and sustaining urban centers in places like
Kanchipuram and Tanjore.
South Indian Perspective
Scholars like Burton Stein emphasized the integration of
temple economies with urbanization, particularly in
South India.
The Chola rulers actively patronized temple
construction, which stimulated artisanal production and
trade.
 Inter-Regional Trade
Trade was characterized by the movement of luxury
goods, raw materials, and cultural artifacts, linking India
to global markets.
Political Framework and Trade Stability:
Regional kingdoms like the Cholas, Palas, Rashtrakutas,
and Pratiharas provided political stability, facilitating
inter-regional trade.
Overland routes linked northern India to the Deccan and
peninsular regions.
Trade Goods:
Agricultural produce: Rice, wheat, and pulses from
surplus-producing regions.
Artisanal products: Cotton textiles, metal goods
(weapons, jewelry), and pottery.
Salt and spices: Transported from coastal areas to inland
regions.
 Inter-Regional Trade
Centers of Inter-Regional Trade
Northern India: Cities like Kanauj, Mathura, and
Varanasi.
Western India: Ujjain and Anhilwara in Gujarat as
trading hubs.
Southern India: Kanchipuram, Madurai, and Tanjore
linked agrarian and artisanal production to markets.

Trade Routes
Northern trade routes connected the Gangetic plains
to Punjab and the Deccan.
The Dakshinapatha linked North India to South India,
passing through the Deccan plateau.
 Maritime Trade

India was a central node in maritime trade, connecting

Southeast Asia, the Persian Gulf, and East Africa.

Key Ports- Tamralipti (Bengal): Linked with Southeast

Asia and China.
Kollam and Kaveripattinam (Tamil Nadu): Hubs for
trade with Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia.
Surat and Sopara (Gujarat): Facilitated trade with the
Persian Gulf and Arabian Peninsula.
 Maritime Trade
Trade Commodities:
Exports: Cotton textiles, spices (pepper, cardamom),
ivory, precious stones, and metalware.
Imports: Arabian horses, Persian silver, Chinese silk
and ceramics, and African gold.
State Support:

The Cholas actively promoted maritime trade by

maintaining ports and fleets.
The Srivijaya Empire in Southeast Asia cooperated
with Indian traders, creating a shared maritime
economy.
 Maritime Trade
Merchant Guilds and Diaspora:
Indian merchants, such as those belonging to the
Ayyavole 500, established diaspora communities in
Southeast Asia and the Persian Gulf.
These communities facilitated long-distance trade and
cultural exchange.
Cultural Exchange:
Maritime trade carried Indian culture, including
Buddhism, Hinduism, and art forms, to Southeast
Asia.
Temples in regions like Cambodia (Angkor Wat) and
Java reflect Indian cultural influences.
 Interplay of Inter-Regional and
Maritime Trade

Inter-regional trade networks funneled goods from

inland markets to coastal ports.
Coastal trade hubs like Kollam and Tamralipti acted as
gateways for Indian goods to reach global markets.

Combined, these networks enabled India's integration

into a transcontinental trade system, fostering
economic and cultural dynamism.
 Role of Temple Economy
Agrarian Base: Temple land grants facilitated surplus
production, which was then utilized for trade and
urbanization.

Artisanal Activity: Temples employed specialized

artisans for sculpture, metalwork, and textiles,
creating thriving local economies.

Trade Networks: Temples served as nodes connecting

local
production to long-distance trade routes.
Chola Patronage of Trade and
The Cholas actively supported trade by maintaining
Infrastructure
naval fleets, securing sea lanes, and investing in port
infrastructure.
Urban centers thrived due to state-sponsored
temples, which became not just religious institutions
but also centers of wealth accumulation and artisanal
production.
For example, the Brihadisvara Temple in Thanjavur
symbolized both economic prosperity and religious
patronage.
Kulke’s work underscores how Chola statecraft,
maritime trade, and temple-centered economies
synergized to create thriving urban centers in South
India. This vibrancy challenges earlier narratives of
urban decline during early medieval India
 Conclusion
The early medieval period in India witnessed
significant trade and urbanization, shaped by
regional variations, temple-centered
economies, and participation in global trade
networks. While earlier historiography
emphasized decline, recent scholarship
highlights the resilience and dynamism of trade
and urban systems. Inter-regional and
maritime trade further integrated India into
global economic and cultural circuits, making
the period a vibrant phase of economic activity.
 Bibliography

Sharma, R. S. Indian Feudalism. Macmillan, 1980.

Chattopadhyaya, B. D. The Making of Early Medieval
India. Oxford University Press, 1994.
Thapar, Romila. Early India: From the Origins to AD
1300. Penguin, 2002.
Chakravarti, Ranabir. Trade and Traders in Early
India. Manohar, 2002.
Kulke, Hermann, and Dietmar Rothermund. A History
of India. Routledge, 2004.