Register Transfer &

Micro-operations
Register Transfer & -
operations
SIMPLE DIGITAL SYSTEMS

• Combinational and sequential circuits (learned in Chapters 1) can

be used to create simple digital systems.

• These are the low-level building blocks of a digital computer.

• Simple digital systems are frequently characterized in terms of

– the registers they contain, and
– the operations that they perform.

• Typically,
– What operations are performed on the data in the registers
– What information is passed between registers

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Register Transfer & - Register Transfer Language
operations
MICROOPERATIONS (1)

• The operations on the data in registers are

called microoperations.
• The functions built into registers are
examples of microoperations
– Shift
– Load
– Clear
– Increment
– ……

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Register Transfer & - Register Transfer Language
operations
MICROOPERATION (2)

An elementary operation performed (during

one clock pulse), on the information stored
in one or more registers

Registers ALU 1 clock cycle

(R) (f)

R  f(R, R)

f: shift, load, clear, increment, add, subtract,

complement,
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Register Transfer & - Register Transfer Language
operations
ORGANIZATION OF A DIGITAL SYSTEM

• Definition of the (internal) organization of a computer

- Set of registers and their functions

- Microoperations set

Set of allowable microoperations

provided by the organization of the
computer

- Control signals that initiate the sequence of

microoperations (to perform the functions)

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Register Transfer & - Register Transfer Language
operations
REGISTER TRANSFER LEVEL

• Viewing a computer, or any digital system, in this way is

called the register transfer level

• This is because we’re focusing

on
– The system’s registers
– The data transformations in them, and
– The data transfers between them.

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Register Transfer & - Register Transfer Language
operations
REGISTER TRANSFER LANGUAGE

• Rather than specifying a digital system in words, a

specific notation is used, register transfer language

• For any function of the computer, the register transfer

language can be used to describe the (sequence of)
microoperations

• Register transfer language

– A symbolic language
– A convenient tool for describing the internal organization of digital
computers
– Can also be used to facilitate the design process of digital
systems.

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Register Transfer & - Register Transfer Language
operations
DESIGNATION OF REGISTERS
• Registers are designated by capital letters,
sometimes followed by numbers (e.g., A, R13, IR) to
denote the function of the register.
• Often the names indicate function:
– MAR - memory address register
– PC - program counter
– IR - instruction register

• Registers and their contents can be viewed and represented

in
various ways
– A register can be viewed as a MAR
single entity:

– Registers may also be represented showing the bits of data they contain

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Register Transfer & - Register Transfer Language
operations
DESIGNATION OF REGISTERS

• Designation of a register
- a register
- portion of a register
- a bit of a register

• Common ways of drawing the block diagram of a

register
Register Showing individual bits
R1 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
0
15 0 15 8 0
R2 7 PC(H) PC(L)
Numbering of bits Subfields

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Register Transfer & - Register Transfer
operations

REGISTER TRANSFER

• Copying the contents of one register to another is a

register transfer

• A register transfer is indicated as

R2  R1

– In this case the contents of register R1 are copied (loaded)

into
register R2
– A simultaneous transfer of all bits from the source R1 to
the destination register R2, during one clock pulse
– Note that this is a non-destructive; i.e. the contents of R1
are not
altered by copying (loading) them to R2
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Register Transfer & - Register Transfer
operations
REGISTER
TRANSFER

• A register transfer such as

R3  R5

Implies that the digital system has

– the data lines from the source register (R5) to the destination
register (R3)
– Parallel load in the destination register (R3)
– Control lines to perform the action

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Register Transfer & - Register Transfer
operations
CONTROL FUNCTIONS
• Often actions need to only occur if a certain condition is true
• This is similar to an “if” statement in a programming language
• In digital systems, this is often done via a control signal,
called
a control function.
A control function is a Boolean Variable that is equal to 1 or 0.
– If the signal is 1, the action takes place
• This is represented as:

P: R2  R1

Which means “if P = 1, then load the contents of register R1

into register R2”, i.e., if (P = 1) then (R2  R1)

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Register Transfer & - Register Transfer
operations
HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION OF CONTROLLED
TRANSFERS

Implementation of controlled
transfer P: R2  R1

Control
Block diagram Circuit
P Load
R2 Clock
n
R1

Timing diagram t t+1

Clock

Load
Transfer occurs here

• The same clock controls the circuits that generate the control function
and the destination register
• Registers are assumed to use positive-edge-triggered flip-flops

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Register Transfer & - Register Transfer
operations
SIMULTANEOUS OPERATIONS

• If two or more operations are to occur

simultaneously, they are separated with
commas

P: R3  R5, MAR  IR

• Here, if the control function P = 1, load the

contents of R5 into R3, and at the same time
(clock), load the contents of register IR into
register MAR

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Register Transfer & - Register Transfer
operations
BASIC SYMBOLS FOR REGISTER TRANSFERS

Symbols Description Examples

Capital letters Denotes a register MAR, R2
& numerals
Parentheses () Denotes a part of a register R2(0-7), R2(L)
Arrow  Denotes transfer of information R2  R1
Colon : Denotes termination of control P:
Comma , function A  B, B  A
Separates two micro-operations

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Register Transfer & - Register Transfer
operations
CONNECTING REGISTRS

• In a digital system with many registers, it is impractical

to have data and control lines to directly allow each
register to be loaded with the contents of every possible
other registers

• To completely connect n registers  n(n-1) lines

• O(n2) cost
– This is not a realistic approach to use in a large digital system

• Instead, take a different approach

• Have one centralized set of circuits for data transfer –
the
bus
• Have control circuits to select which register is the
source, and which is the destination

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Register Transfer & - Bus and Memory Transfers
operations
BUS AND BUS TRANSFER
Bus is a path(of a group of wires) over which information is
transferred, from any of several sources to any of several destinations.
From a register to bus: BUS  R
Register Register Register Register
A B C D

Bus
lines

Register A Register B Register C Register D

1 2 3 4
1 2 3 1 1

4 2 3 4 2 3 4
B1 C1 D B2 C2 D 2 B3 C3 D B4 C4 D
0 14 x1 0 4 x1 0 34 x1 0 4
4 x1
MUX MUX MUX MUX

x
select
y

4-line bus
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Register Transfer & - Bus and Memory Transfers
operations
BUS TRANSFER IN RTL

• Depending on whether the bus is to be mentioned

explicitly or not, register transfer can be indicated
as either:
R2  R1
or
BUS  R1, R2  BUS

• In the former case the bus is implicit, but in the latter, it

is explicitly indicated

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Register Transfer & - Bus and Memory Transfers
operations
MEMORY (RAM)
• Memory (RAM) can be thought as a sequential
circuits containing some number of registers
• These registers hold the words of memory
• Each of the r registers is indicated by an address
• These addresses range from 0 to r-1
• Each register (word) can hold n bits of data
• Assume the RAM contains r = 2K words. It needs the
Following:
– n data input lines data input lines
– n data output lines
n
– k address lines
– A Read control line address lines RAM
– A Write control line unit
Read

Write
n
data output lines
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Register Transfer & - Bus and Memory Transfers
operations
MEMORY
TRANSFER
• Collectively, the memory is viewed at the register level
as a device, M.
• Since it contains multiple locations, we must
specify which address in memory we will be using
• This is done by indexing memory references

• Memory is usually accessed in computer systems

by putting the desired address in a special register,
the Memory Address Register (MAR, or AR)
• When memory is accessed, the contents of the MAR
get
sent to the memory unit’s address lines
Memory Read
AR unit
Write
M

Data out Data in

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Register Transfer & - Bus and Memory Transfers
operations
MEMORY READ

• To read a value from a location in memory and load it into

a register, the register transfer language notation looks
like this:
R1  M[AR]

• This causes the following to occur

– The contents of the AR get sent to the memory address lines
– A Read (= 1) gets sent to the memory unit
– The contents of the specified address are put on the memory’s
output data lines
– These get sent over the bus to be loaded into register R1
– Usually R1 is recognized as Data Register

Read DR  M[AR]
This causes a transfer of information into DR from the memory M
selected by the address in AR

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Register Transfer & - Bus and Memory Transfers
operations
MEMORY WRITE

• To write a value from a register to a location in memory

looks like this in register transfer language:

M[AR]  R1

• This causes the following to occur

– The contents of the AR get sent to the memory address lines
– A Write (= 1) gets sent to the memory unit
– The values in register R1 get sent over the bus to the data input lines
of the memory
– The values get loaded into the specified address in the memory

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Register Transfer & -
Bus and Memory
operations
SUMMARY OF R. TRANSFER
Transfers
MICROOPERATIONS

AB Transfer content of reg. B into reg. A

AR DR(AD) Transfer content of AD portion of reg. DR into reg.
A AR Transfer a binary constant into reg. A
constant Transfer content of R1 into bus A and, at the same
ABUS  R1, time, transfer content of bus A into R2
R2  ABUS Address register
AR Data register
DR Memory word
specified by reg.
M[R]
R
M  M
DR
Equivalent to
M[AR]
M  DR
Memory read operation: transfers content of
memory word specified by AR into
DR
Memory write operation: transfers content of
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Register Transfer & - Arithmetic Microoperations
operations
MICROOPERATIONS

• Computer system microoperations are of four

types:

- Register transfer microoperations

- Arithmetic microoperations
- Logic microoperations
- Shift microoperations

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Register Transfer & - Arithmetic Microoperations
operations
ARITHMETIC MICROOPERATIONS
• The basic arithmetic microoperations are
– Addition
– Subtraction
– Increment
– Decrement

• The additional arithmetic microoperations are

– Add with carry
– Subtract with borrow
– Transfer/Load
– etc. …

Summary of Typical Arithmetic Micro-

Operations
R3  R1 + R2 Contents of R1 plus R2 transferred to R3
R3  R1 - R2 Contents of R1 minus R2 transferred to
R2  R2’ R3 Complement the contents of R2
R2  R2’+ 1 2's complement the contents of R2
R3  R1 + (negate)
R2’+ 1 subtraction
R1  R1 + 1 Increment
R1  R1 - 1 Decrement 25
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Register Transfer & - Logic Microoperations
operations
LIST OF LOGIC
MICROOPERATIONS
• List of Logic Microoperations
- 16 different logic operations with 2 binary vars.
- n binary vars → 2 2 n functions

• Truth
x 0tables
011 for 16 functions
Boolean Micro-of 2 variables
Name and the
corresponding
y 0101 16 logic micro-operations
Function Operations
0000 F0 = 0 F0 Clear
0001 F1 = xy F  A  B AND
0010 F2 = xy' F  A  B’
0011 F3 = x FA Transfer A
0100 F4 = x'y F  A’ B
0101 F5 = y FB Transfer B
0110 F6 = x  y FAB Exclusive-OR
0111 F7 = x + y FAB OR
1000 F8 = (x + y)' F  A  B)’ NOR
1001 F9 = (x  y)' F  (A  B)’ Exclusive-NOR
1010 F10 = y' F  B’ Complement B
1011 F11 = x + y' F  AB’
1100 F12 = x' F  A’ Complement A
1101 F13 = x' + y F  A’B
1110 F14 = (xy)' F  (A  NAND
1111 F15 = 1 B)’ Set to all 1's
F  all 1's 26
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Register Transfer & - Logic Microoperations
operations
APPLICATIONS OF LOGIC MICROOPERATIONS
• Logic microoperations can be used to manipulate
individual bits or a portions of a word in a register

• Consider the data in a register A. In another register, B, is

bit data that will be used to modify the contents of A

– Selective-set AA+B
– Selective-complement AAB
– Selective-clear A  A • B’
– Mask (Delete) AA•B
– Clear AAB
– Insert A  (A • B)
– Compare +C
AAB

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Register Transfer & - Logic Microoperations
operations
SELECTIVE SET

• In a selective set operation, the bit pattern in B is used to

set
certain bits in A
1100 At
1010 B
1110 At+1 (A  A + B)

• If a bit in B is set to 1, that same position in A gets set to

1, otherwise that bit in A keeps its previous value

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Register Transfer & - Logic Microoperations
operations
SELECTIVE COMPLEMENT

• In a selective complement operation, the bit pattern in B

is used to complement certain bits in A

1100 At
1010 B
0110 At+1 (A  A  B)

• If a bit in B is set to 1, that same position in A gets

complemented from its original value, otherwise it
is unchanged

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Register Transfer & - Logic Microoperations
operations
SELECTIVE CLEAR

• In a selective clear operation, the bit pattern in B is used

to
clear certain bits in A
1100 At
1010 B
0100 At+1 (A  A 
B’)
• If a bit in B is set to 1, that same position in A gets set to
0, otherwise it is unchanged

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Register Transfer & - Logic Microoperations
operations
MASK OPERATION

• In a mask operation, the bit pattern in B is used to

clear
certain bits in A
1100 At
1010 B
1000 At+1 (A  A 
B)
• If a bit in B is set to 0, that same position in A gets set to
0, otherwise it is unchanged

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Register Transfer & - Logic Microoperations
operations
CLEAR OPERATION

• In a clear operation, if the bits in the same position in A and

B are the same, they are cleared in A, otherwise they are
set in A

1100 At
1010 B
0110 At+1 (A  A  B)

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Register Transfer & - Logic Microoperations
operations
INSERT OPERATION
• An insert operation is used to introduce a specific bit
pattern into A register, leaving the other bit positions
unchanged
• This is done as
– A mask operation to clear the desired bit positions, followed by
– An OR operation to introduce the new bits into the
desired positions
– Example
» four bits of
Suppose 1101to
A: wanted
you 1000 1011 0001
introduce 1010Ainto
(Original)
the low
order 1101 1000 1011 1010 A (Desired)

» 1101 1000 1011 0001 A (Original)

1111 1111 1111 0000 Mask
1101 1000 1011 0000 A
(Intermediate)
0000 0000 0000 1010 Added bits
1101 1000 1011 1010 A (Desired)

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Register Transfer & - Shift Microoperations
operations
SHIFT MICROOPERATIONS
• There are three types of shifts
– Logical shift
– Circular shift
– Arithmetic shift
• What differentiates them is the information that goes
into the serial input

• A right shift operation

Serial
input

• A left shift Serial

input
operation

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Register Transfer & - Shift Microoperations
operations
LOGICAL SHIFT
• In a logical shift the serial input to the shift is a 0.

• A right logical shift operation:

0

• A left logical shift operation:

0

• In a Register Transfer Language, the following notation is used

– shl for a logical shift left
– shr for a logical shift right
– Examples:
» R2  shr R2
» R3  shl R3
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Register Transfer & - Shift Microoperations
operations
CIRCULAR SHIFT
• In a circular shift the serial input is the bit that is shifted out
of the other end of the register.

• A right circular shift operation:

• A left circular shift operation:

• In a RTL, the following notation is

used
– cil for a circular shift left
– cir for a circular shift right
– Examples:
» R2  cir R2
» R3  cil R3

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Register Transfer & - Shift Microoperations
operations
ARITHMETIC SHIFT
• An arithmetic shift is meant for signed binary
numbers (integer)
• An arithmetic left shift multiplies a signed number by
two
• An arithmetic right shift divides a signed number by
two
• The main distinction of an arithmetic shift is that it must
keep the sign of the number the same as it performs the
multiplication or division

sign
• A right arithmetic shift operation:
bit

• A left arithmetic shift operation:

0
sign
bit

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Arithmetic Shift Right
• Arithmetic right-shift: Rn-1 remains unchanged;
• Rn-2 receives Rn-1, Rn-3 receives Rn-2, so on.
• For a negative number, 1 is shifted from the sign bit to the right. A negative
number is represented by the 2’s complement. The sign bit remained unchanged.
Arithmetic Shift Right
• Arithmetic Shift Right :
• Example 1
0100 (4) 
0010 (2)
• Example 2
1010 (-6) 
1101 (-3)
Arithmetic Shift Left
The operation is same with Logic shift-left
The only difference is you need to check
overflow problem
Carry out R 2  ashl R 2
Sign bit

LSB

Rn-1 Rn-2

Vs=1 : Overflow 0 insert

Vs=0 : use sign bit

Arithmetic Shift Left
• Arithmetic Shift Left :
• Example 1
0010 (2) 
0100 (4)
• Example 2
1110 (-2) 
1100 (-4)
Arithmetic Shift Left
• Arithmetic Shift Left :
• Example 3
0100 (4) 
1000 (overflow)
• Example 4
1010 (-6) 
0100 (overflow)
Register Transfer & - 43 Shift Microoperations
operations
ARITHMETIC SHIFT
• An left arithmetic shift operation must be checked for
the overflow
0
sign
bit

Before the shift, if the leftmost two

V bits differ, the shift will result in
an overflow

• In a RTL, the following notation is

used
– ashl for an arithmetic shift left
– ashr for an arithmetic shift right
– Examples:
» R2  ashr R2
» R3  ashl R3

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