Exploration Geophysics

(Geol 392)
Course Outline

1. Introduction and general overview

Geophysics, Exploration/Applied Geophysics,
Overview of the different methods and their applications ,

2. The Magnetic Methods

2.1 Principles, applications

Basic magnetic theory
The magnetic field of the Earth
2.2 Instrumentation Magnetometers
Schmidt type balances
Proton precision magnetometers

2.3 Magnetic surveying and field procedures

 2.4 Interpretation
Corrections applied to magnetic data
Data presentation and qualitative interpretation

3. The Gravity Methods

3.1 Principles- the gravity field of the Earth, basic relations
3.2 Gravimeters- discussion on working principle of
one/two gravimeters
3.3 Field procedure and reduction of gravity data
3.4 Interpretation of gravity anomalies

4. Electrical methods
4.1 Brief outline of the various types of electrical methods
of prospecting and their applications
4.2 Electrode arrangements in resistivity surveys
- Schlumberger, Wenner and Dipole-Dipole arrays
4.3 Field procedures
- Profiling and sounding surveys
4.4 Field Curve types, interpretation of resistivity data
4.5 Principles of IP and SP Methods
 5. Seismic Methods

5.1 Elementary principles of reflection and

refraction methods
5.2 Two and three layer refraction problems including
dipping layers
5.3 Seismic Instrumentation and field procedures
5.4 Interpretation

Suggested References

Dobrin M.B.; Introduction to Geophysical Prospecting

Parasnis D.S.; Principles of Applied Geophysics

Telford, Geldart and Sheriff; Applied Geophysics

Reynolds; Introduction to Environmental and Engineering Geophysics

 2. The Magnetic Method of Prospecting
2.1 Introduction
- the oldest branch of applied geophysics which utilizes the
natural Earth’s magnetic field

- the Earth’s magnetic field was initially used for navigation purposes

a) W. Gilbert (1504-1603)

- first showed that the Earth’s magnetic field was equivalent to that
of a field of a permanent magnet lying in the general north-
south direction close to the centre of the Earth

- he also gave the idea of a magnetic field with a definite orientation

at each point on the surface of the Earth

- his “classical model” of the source of the geomagnetic field has

since undergone several changes
 b) The first systematic application of the method for exploration
purposes- as early as 1640- for iron ore prospecting in Kiruna,
Sweden
(The Kiruna iron ore is still in production at Kirunavara)

Applications

I) Mineral Exploration

a) For search of magnetic ores (magnetite, ilmenite, etc.) and

substances whose magnetic susceptibility is high

b) For search of metalliferous minerals (Fe, Zn, Cu, …)

c) For search of non-magnetic minerals commonly found in

association with magnetic ores (Ni, Cu, Au are often found in
association with magnetic minerals such as magnetite and
pyrrhotite …)

d) For locating buried structures/weak zones like faults, fractures,

fissures- that could act as conduits or barriers for flow of
groundwater, pollutants, etc.
 e) Mapping/locating structural trends following intrusions of
igneous rocks, salt domes, buried hills, etc.

II. Engineering applications

- locating buried structures, weak zones, depth to basement, etc.

- locating buried pipes, cables, mines, …

III. Archaeological applications

- for locating buried magnetic objects, buried treasures, sunken
ships, building masonry, etc.

IV. Oil Exploration

- mainly as a reconnaissance tool

- often in combination with gravity survey to

- outline sedimentary basins
- determine the thickness of overlying sedimentary column
 gamma m gals
Magnetic anomaly
7500 2

Gravity anomaly
5500 1

_ _ Distance
____
______
______ ______
______
______ ______ Sedimentary horizon
______
v v v
x x x x x x x x x
x v v v x
x x x rockx x
Basement v x x x
x x x x v v x x
x x x x x Intrusion

- The magnetic effect of sedimentary rocks as compared with the effect of the
underlying igneous rocks is negligible- magnetic anomalies, therefore, are
almost always associated with basement features or intrusive igneous rocks.
- Since igneous rocks are frequently associated with mineralization, a
magnetic interpretation can be a first step in finding areas favorable for
mineral deposits.
2.2 The Gravity and Magnetic Fields of the Earth

Common features

i. Both are vector fields determined the Earth’s surface

ii. Both are potential fields

Potential at a point is the work required to move a unit mass/
a unit pole against the force of gravity/ magnetic field from
infinity to that point

Gravitational/magnetic force in a given direction = the derivative

of the gravitational/magnetic potential in that direction

 dVg ,M
Fg ,M  
dr
iii. Both obey the inverse square law
 1
Fg , M  2
r
2.3 Magnetic Theory and Principles

The magnetic state of a body can be considered as having its origin in a

large number of elementary magnets called DIPOLES
N

• Consider a magnetic body placed in the field of an external field

i. No external Field

- random distribution and orientation of the elementary magnets

- the fields neutralize and no external manifestation of the field

ii. Application of external field

- the dipoles are aligned along the external field

- the stronger the external field, the more the alignment

of the dipoles
- the body manifests an external field of its own.
iii. Removal of the external field
- the alignment will largely disappear in ferrous “soft” materials
and the materials loose their magnetization
- in “hard” magnetic materials the alignment of the elementary
magnetic particles will persist and one will have a permanent
magnet
• Magnetization property of materials vary over a wide range as
determined by

- the magnetization intensity of the elementary magnets

- the ease with which they may be disturbed or oriented

- the persistence with which they maintain the given orientation

once it has been acquired
• Based on these properties, materials may be classed as

i) Paramagnetic- e.g. Iron, Nickel, Cobalt

ii) Diamagnetic

iii. Ferromagnetic
 Pure ferromagnetic materials do not exist in nature but ferrimagnetic
materials like magnetite, titano magnetite, Ilmenite, pyrrhotite, etc.
exist showing high magnetic properties.

2.4 Elementary Magnetic Relations

• Magnetic Force (F)

Coulomb experimentally showed that, there is a force between

magnetic poles which varies
- inversely as the square of the distance between them
- proportional to the product of their strengths

F  p1 p2  p1 p2  1 p1 p2
 1 F 2 F rˆ
F 2 r  r2
r
where r is directed from p1 to p2 (or -p to +p or N to S)
  - is called the magnetic permeability of the medium

 ≈ 1 in air

= 0 ≈ 4 x 10-7 Henrys/meter for free space

= 1.3 x 10-6 Henrys/meter for most rocks

= 3 x 4 x 10-7 Henrys/meter for ferromagnetic material

• Magnetic Field Strength (H)

- This is a more practical quantity than the magnetic force

- The magnetic field strength (H) at a point in space as a result

of a pole of strength ‘p’ located at a distance ‘r’ from it is
defined as the force per unit pole

 F
H
p
• Magnetic Moment (M)

- magnetic poles always exist in pairs (a magnet broken into

infinitely small parts will still give a N and S pole together)

(single magnetic poles- MAGNETC MONOPOLES- have, however

been theoretically predicted with many implications)

- the fundamental magnetic quantity is therefore a DIPOLE-

two poles of strength +p and –p separated by a distance L
-p
- magnetic moment (M) is defined as
 L
M  pL rˆ +p

M being a vector directed from –p to +p

(compare this with the fundamental electrical quantity- the CHARGE

which may be negative or positive = 1.6 x 10-19 Coulomb)
• Intensity of Magnetization (I)

- A magnetic body placed in an external magnetic field becomes

magnetized by induction

- The degree to which the body gets magnetized I

- is proportional to the magnetizing field strength,
- its direction is that of the magnetizing field.

- I is defined as the magnetic moment per unit volume

M
I
V
- practically, this magnetization by induction amounts to the lining
up of the dipoles of the magnetic material and, for this reason,
I is also referred to as MAGNETIC POLARIZATION

- if I is constant and has the same direction throughout, the body

is said to be uniformly magnetized.
• Magnetic Susceptibility (K)

- The degree to which a body gets magnetized when subjected

to an external field is determined by its magnetic susceptibility
and this parameter is defined as
I Intenisty of magnetization
K 
H Magnetic field strength
- Susceptibility is the fundamental parameter in magnetic
prospecting.

- Since the magnetic response of minerals and rocks to the

geomagnetic field is determined by the amount of magnetic
materials in them, measurements of variation in this property
can be used as a geophysical tool

• Magnetic Induction (B)

- A magnetic body placed in an external field H has its internal

poles (elementary magnets) more or less lined up by the field H
to produce a corresponding field H’ of its own

- This increases the total field within the body

- The internally produced field H’ is related to the intensity of
magnetization I and the external field H

- The magnetic induction B is defined as the total field in the body

and is given by
B H  4I , I KH
H (1  4K )
- By definition, the ratio of the magnetic induction B to the magnetic
field strength H is the magnetic permeability 
B

H

so that from the above equation

 1 4K

which is the relation between the magnetic susceptibility K and

the permeability 
Units

[B] – Gauss (G) 1G=10-3 Orsted (Oe)

Common unit in magnetic prospecting is the Gamma () or the
nano Tesla (nT)
1 =10-5 Oe
=10-8 G

• Hysterisis (B-H) Curve

- The relation between the magnetic induction B and the external

field H can be quite complex in ferromagnetic materials- this is
illustrated by CYCLE OF MAGNTIZATION or the B-H Curve
B

or=or’ remanent magntization

r

c o c’ H oc=oc’ coersive force

r’

Coersive force- is the reverse magnetic field that needs to be applied

to remove the induced polarization
2.5 The Geomagnetic Field

- Magnetic prospecting uses the Earth’s magnetic field as a source.

a) Origin
-There are several theories as to the origin of the Earth’s
magnetic field
• The Geocentric Dipole Model
- the classical model- a ‘huge’ bar magnet placed at the center
of the Earth and close to its rotation axis in a more or less
north-south direction

Problems with this model

- Temperature variation in the Earth
- Time variation of the field and its variation over the
Earth’s surface from place to place
- Reversals of the Earth’s magnetic field

• The Magneto Hydrodynamic (MHD) theory

- coupled fluid motions and electric currents in the liquid outer
core generating the field
 - The iron silicate, partially fluid core  rotation of the Earth 
field generation  coupling to the outside of the core … in a
self sustaining dynamo
Problems
- coupling of the generated field to the outside of the core,
its strength and variation, actual model working systematics, etc.

b) Components

- so far as exploration geophysics is concerned, the geomagnetic

field arises from three sources and is composed of three parts
i) The Main Field
- a relatively large (average 0.5 Oe) slowly changing SECULAR
PART caused by the internal state of the Earth
- the causes for its variation (90%) is of internal origin
- the slow changes in this field with periods of the order of decades
to a century are called SECULAR VARIATIONS

ii) The External Field

- a small fraction of the main field which varies rapidly, partly
cyclically and partly randomly having the cause of its variation
(about 1% of variation of the main field ) outside of the Earth
(The magnetosphere, artists version)

The magnetosphere is that area of space, around the Earth,

that is controlled by the Earth's magnetic field.
 - The variations- called DIURNAL VARIATIONS- are caused by
interactions between the Sun’s radiation and Earth through eddy
currents in the upper atmosphere

iii) Anomaly of the field

- it is relatively constant in time and place and is caused by local
magnetic anomalies in the subsurface of the Earth- lateral
variations associated with geologic structures and lithological
variations
- is usually, but not always, much smaller than the main field

- The variations in this field are the targets in magnetic prospecting.

c) Characteristics
- Generated by an ‘equivalent magnetic dipole’ oriented in a
north-south direction close to the geographic poles
- North pole 75 N, 101 W – Canadian Arctic Island
South Pole 67 S, 140 E - Antarctic South of Tasmania

- Passes about 750 miles from the geometrical Earth’s center at the
equator- towards Indonesia
- Inclined at some 18 to the polar diameter
- Magnitude
average:- total field 0.5 Oe, 0.65 at the poles, 0.35 at the equator
North pole 0.6 Oe
South pole 0.7 Oe
- At the north and south poles the dip needle stands vertical

- Minimum value of the field (0.25 Oe) occurs in the pacific off
Antifogosta bay in Northern Chile

- The field is larger that 30 Oe at some places because of abnormal

near surface magnetic features in a few locations of the Earth
(for eg. Kursk, Russia)
- Magnetic dipole moment

M  pL rˆ  7.94 x 1025 Gauss/cm2

The International Geomagnetic Reference Field (IGRF) is a model

that is mathematically derived to give representative magnetic field
for any point over the surface of the Earth
d) Elements
x
Geographic (astronomical) north

H Magnetic North
Seven elements
x 2
D

F total field
y 
I y2 East H horizontal field
 
Z or (V ) vertical field
I inclination
F
D declination
V
Relation between the elements
2 2  2 2
z
F Z  H ; H x 2  y 2
Vertical (towards
the Earth’s center) z 2  x 2  y 2
H F cos Z
I tan  1  
Z F sin I H
x H cos D  y
D tan  1  
y H sin D  x
2.6 Magnetism of Rocks and Minerals

Magnetic susceptibility in a significant variable in magnetic prospecting

playing the same role as density in gravity prospecting

As in the case of density, it is not generally possible to measure

susceptibility directly in the field, although instruments are available
for this purpose which can only be used on outcrops or ore rock
samples. Measurement of these types do not, however, give the bulk
susceptibility of the formation

a) Magnetic susceptibility of various rocks

Mineral Type Susceptibility (K) (x 106 eu)

Range Average
Sedimentary
dolomite 0 – 75 10
limestone 2 – 280 25
sandstone 0 – 1600 30
shales 5 - 1480 50
Contd …

Metamorphic
Amphibolite ---- 60
Schist 25 – 240 120
Phillite ---- 130
Gneiss 10 – 2000 ---
Quartzite ---- 350
Slate 0 - 3000 500

Igneous
0 – 4000 400
Granite
100 – 3000 1400
Dolerite
---- 2000
Olivine-Diabase
80 – 13,000 4500
Diabase
80 – 7200 6000
Gabbro
20 – 14,000 6000
Basalt
50 – 10,000 7000
Diorite
7600 – 15,000 13,000
Peridotite
---- 13,500
Andesite
b) Magnetic susceptibility of some minerals

Mineral Type Susceptibility (K) (x 106 eu)

Range Average
Graphite -8
Quartz -1
Rock salt -1
Gypsum -1
Calcite --------------------0.6 – 1----- ----
Coal 2
Clays 20
Chalcopyrite 32
Sphalerite 60
Cassiterite 30
Siderite -------------------100 – 300 ---- ----
Pyrite 130
Limonite 220
Arsenopyrite 240
Haematite --------------- 40 – 3000 -------- 550
Chromite 240 – 9400 600
Pyrotite 100 – 5x105 125,000
Ilmenite 25,000 – 3x105 150,000
Magnetite 10 - 1.6 x 106 5 x 105
 3 MAGNETIC SURVEYING
3.1 Instrumentation
- In magnetic prospecting, one measures variations of the order
of 1/104 of the Earth’s main field which on the average has
a value of 0.5 Oe.
- An appropriate unit for magnetic field intensity/strength generated
by local magnetic anomalies, called the GAMMA is therefore

1  = 10-5 Oe

and this unit is of a convenient size in geophysical work.

- The sensitivity required in magnetic instruments is between 1 and

10  in a total field of rarely larger than 50,000 

- Such sensitive instruments used in magnetic survey are called

MAGNETOMETERS

- The first magnetometer was constructed by Thalen in 1870

- The first precision vertical field balance was later constructed by
Adolf Schmidt (using a magnetic needle swinging on an agate
knife edge) in 1915which were later improved.

- Later more advanced- versatile, sensitive and more accurate

instruments have been developed that measure the total field
or its components

- Accordingly, several instruments have been used to measure the

geomagnetic anomaly over the Earth’s surface, some of these are

1) The Hotchkiss Superdip

-This is a simple dip measuring instrument consisting of a magnetic

bar placed to rotate freely under the action of the Earth’s
magnetic field and a dial used to directly read the field intensity

N
- Such an instrument has a low accuracy
S and sensitivity and is obsolete nowadays
2) The Schmidt Magnetometer
(Schmidt Type Field Balances)

The first precision Schmidt type vertical balance (1915) consists of a

magnetic needle swinging on an agate knife edge.

Two components of the Earth’s magnetic field- the vertical and

horizontal- could be measured by a revised version of this
instrument by setting the magnetic system in a particular direction

a) Vertical Field Measurement

For this purpose/measurement the main magnet system in the

instrument is placed in a horizontal direction

Consider the following magnetic system of total length 2L pivoted

at ‘o’ on a very fine quartz edge with ‘c’ as the center of gravity
of the system

Consider the case where the magnet system, initially horizontal, is

placed in an external vertical field of magnitude ‘v’ under whose
influence the system rotates by an angle 
 v1  v2 K S1  S 2  (10)

where mgd (11)

K
2 fM
determines the sensitivity of the instrument and is called the SCALE
FACTOR.
The value of K can be varied by varying either of m, g, d, M and f.

However in field magnetometers all these parameters except ‘d’ are

fixed so that by varying ‘d’ (changing the center of gravity of the
mass) variations in scale ranging between 10 per division to
2/division are possible.

b) Horizontal Field Measurement

The orientation of the main permanent magnet in the field instrument
is changed to be vertical for the horizontal field measurement.
Assume that the magnet system of the instrument is placed in a
region where the horizontal field is H. Assume also that the
vertical field at this location is V.
 • More advanced and precision magnetic field instruments have been
designed and implemented in magnetic surveying work after the
first Schmidt Magnetometer.

Some of the instruments in wide use are:

3. The Askania Magnetometer

works on the same principle as the Schmidt magnetometer but
without the option to measure both the vertical and horizontal
fields with the same instrument

4. Flux Gate Magnetometer

5. Proton Precision Magnetometer
6. Vapor Rubidium Magnetometer- specially suitable for aeromagnetic
surveys
7. Optical Pumping Magnetometer

Note: Read the working principles, operational advantages and

applications of the proton precision magnetometer (PPM).
 3.2 Field Procedure
• Magnetic surveys may be carried out

i) On land- Ground magnetic surveys- Land magnetometry

ii) In air- Airborne magnetic surveys- Aeromagnetic Survey
iii) On sea- Shipborne magnetic survey- Marine magnetometry

In all these survey methods, first survey traverses, traverse spacing

and measuring station spacings have to be determined

The selection of these parameters (traverse directions, spacing

between traverses and measuring point spacing) depend on
several factors

A) Direction of survey traverse

- the traverse direction is usually chosen with reference to the
known/expected target
- is normally perpendicular to the strike of the local geology-
DIRECTION OF ANOMALY
 B) Spacing between traverses and measuring stations- these again
depend on several factors, the important ones are
i) Dimension of the target
- depending upon the expected target dimension, profile spacings
and spacing between measurng points may be small or large.
- smaller size targets need smaller separations while larger ones
will not be missed even with large spacing
- eg. Oli vs mineral exploration
ii) Depth of the body
- deeper magnetic sources have their influence spread over a
wide area and hence can be explored with wider spacings
- shallow depth targets are better resolved with small spacings
iii) Type of survey
- depending on whether the survey is a reconnaissance or detailed
one, the spacings may be respectively made large or small
- for example 20-50 ft mineral exploration
0.25 mile for mineral exploration

iv) Requirements of other geophysical methods in use

- frequently, the magnetometer is one of the geophysical
instruments used in a survey and as such magnetic surveys are
rarely carried out alone
 - usually together with gravimetry and radiometric measurements
- therefore, the survey procedure (direction of survey and spacing)
would often be determined by the requirement of these other
sensors.

Ground Magnetic Surveying

- Magnetic survey on the ground with a portable instrument is a very
old and well established technique

- For oil exploration, the station spacings vary from 0.25 mile to
several miles (and for oil exploration, aeromagnetic survey has
almost totally replaced ground surveys)

- If, however, for some reason ground survey becomes necessary it

is done in combination with gravity survey

- For mineral exploration, especially in base metal search, ground

magnetics is very widely used and station spacings in this case
vary between 50-200 ft and in some cases may be as low as 20 ft.

- In most ground magnetic surveys the vertical components and the

total field are usually measured
Field Practice
- Profiles are normally chosen perpendicular to the local strike of the
known geology of the area or target
- If for some reason the strike of the target is not known (thick top
soil cover, …) choose the survey direction E-W or N-S

- Select and mark profiles and measuring points (picket) with

theodolite and measuring scale with cross points as the survey
may demand
- Observations should be made in places where interference from
power lines, railway lines, buried pipes, automobiles, sheet metal
houses,, etc. are not present

- Remove all magnetic substances like watches, keys, belts, ring,

knives and as such all other materials made of iron from the
observer

- Start measuring from a point selected close to the survey area but
free from the effects of the target or other interference- a point
called BASE STATION
- If you have two magnetometers, place one of them at the base
station to record, continuously or at regular intervals, the time
variation of the magnetic field over the survey area- DIURNAL
VARIATION. This magnetometer may be called the base station
magnetometer.

- Return to this point (base station) at regular time intervals and

as frequently as possible if the survey is carried out with one
magnetometer- field magnetometer.
- In both cases end the survey by taking a last reading at the base
station with the field magnetometer.
 A typical magnetic survey log/record book looks as follows-
Magnetic Survey Data Sheet Page No. ___

Area: _____________ Locality: ______________

Instrument: ________________ Date: ___________
Measurement: __________________ Crew: ______________

Location
Station Longitude Latitude Reading Time
No Name Remark
or (nT) (hh.mm.ss)
(Notes)
Easting (m) Northing (m)

1 Base
2 AA1
3 AA2
4
.
.
. Base
. AAxx

Base
AAyy

n Base
Airborne Magnetic Survey
The first magnetic survey from the air was conducted in 1921 by
Landberg in Sweden.
In 1936 another aeromagnetic survey was reported by Logachev in
Russia where he used an Earth inductor.
The instrumenst used in the above surveys were not that sensitive but
the survey attracted the attention of many geophysicists.
In the middle of 1930, the flux gate magnetometer was developed and
was soon used in aeromagnetic surveys.
Perfected in 1941, the Vacquer Flux Gate magnetometer became the
basic element of airborne survey and was successfully used for
submarine location during WW II.
Aeromagnetic survey became famous with the development of
instrumentation- specially with the introduction of the Nuclear
magnetometer by Varian and Packard in 1954- and is now used
extensively, specially for oil exploration

• Requirements of an airborne magnetic survey

i. Continuously recording instruments

ii. High sensitivity instruments
 iii. Removal of the magnetic effects of the aircraft
this is achieved by towing the magnetometer behind the aircraft
in a BIRD

80-100 ft long
Magnetometer Bird

The Bird is streamlined for maximum stability and minimum air

resistance and is equipped with fins to prevent rotation

Flight altitude: 50-75 m for mining surveys to 2 km in oil exploration

where one is interested in large basement features

Nowadays, even on board magnetometers are available with a set of

orthogonal compensating coils to remove the field of the aircraft
 iv Problem of position location
three methods have been used to facilitate the location of position
of the measured values to points on the ground
a) Continuous strip photography
b) Radio positioning techniques (SHORAN, LORAN, …)
c) Global positioning systems
• Advantages of aeromagnetic survey
i. Vast area can be covered in a short time
ii. Field cost less that the ground survey required to cover the same area
if the survey is over a large area
iii. Airborne survey can be done over areas otherwise inaccessible
for ground operation (highly rugged terrain, water bodies, swamps,
dense forests, etc.)
iv. Shallow artificial objects like buried cables, pipes, do not interfere
much as in ground surveys,
v. Effect of instrument drift and diurnal variation are minimized
vi. Fairly accurate result for reconnaissance survey and oil exploration.

• Disadvantages
i. Too inaccurate for ore exploration
ii. Difficulty in fixing the locations of the observations accurately
iii. High minimum cost for aeromagnetic survey because of the basic
instrument- the aircraft- is required
 Ship borne Magnetic Survey
- The flux gate, proton precision and the optically pumped or Rubidium
magnetometers are normally used for marine surveys (the Proton
Precision Magnetometer is the most extensively used)

- The problem of movement of the ship (pitch, heave, roll) is not

detrimental since magnetometers do not need stable platform
like gravimeters
Problems
Magnetic field of the ship
- minimized by towing the sensor behind the ship in an
apparatus called a FISH.
- the towing distance should be at least twice the length of
the ship
Location of the sensor
- the problem of assigning a location for each data recorded

Sensor orientation
- due to the motion of the ship there is difficulty in measuring
the components and usually the total field is measured
 4. Data Analysis and Interpretation

4.1 Corrections to be applied to magnetic data

- It is necessary to remove effect of external fields and instrument

factors before magnetic data could be interpreted

- The common corrections that need to be applied to magnetic data are

i. Diurnal Corrections
ii. Normal (longitude/latitude) corrections
iii. Instrument closure error corrections, and
iv. Magnetic storm corrections

Diurnal Correction

- these are corrections made to remove for the diurnal variations-

magnetic field variations at a particular place (due to external
factors) on a single day
- the field magnitude is usually between 15-20  and may go as high
as 100  over a single day
 - over a single day the variation starting from 6 am to 6 pm generally
has the following form – as given in a diurnal curve.

Field intensity 
15-100 

6 am Noon 6 pm

- different days show different variations and therefore observations

of a given day should be corrected using data of the same day .

- the diurnal data to be used for the correction is obtained from the
base station magnetometer or by taking repeat readings with
the field magnetometer

Normal Correction
- these are corrections applied to account for the normal variation in
magnetic intensity on latitude and longitude
- the value of the magnetic intensity to be subtracted
≈ 7  per km for a north south survey (latitude)
≈ 2.5  per km to the west (longitude)

- this correction is normally valid in regional work where large areas

are covered by the survey
- in detailed work, only latitude correction need to be applied and
longitudinal correction discarded
- IGRF published data may be used for the purpose

Instrument closure error correction

- this correction is done to compensate for instrument behavior
and variation in instrument readings within a single day
potentially caused by temperature effects, instrument
handling, etc.

- it is accomplished by taking readings at the base station at the

end of the survey/day and distributing the difference among the
stations occupied by the instrument
Correction for Magnetic storms
- magnetic storms are surges/large variations in the magnetic field of
the Earth induced by solar phenomena whose values may go as
high as 250  and even higher

- there are several types of storms depending on their magnitude, the

period they last and cyclic behavior (the most common storm types,
for example, are the Sudden Storm Commencement/ SSC/ whose
magnitude go as high as 500  and may last a few days).

- magnetic surveys are normally terminated during magnetic storms-

a nearby observatory may confirm their onset

- data mistakenly taken during such storms have to be discarded or

corrections applied to the data from daily variation chart provided
by the geomagnetic observatory situated nearby.
The following is a typical table for applying corrections to magnetic data

Vertical Magnetic Stations

Field
K value= Base 1 2 Base n-1 n Base

Time

Readings (A)

Average value of
reading (A)
Value of KA

Diurnal correction

Normal correction

Instrument closure
correction

Adjusted Z or V
Data Presentation and Interpretation

The corrected field magnetic data are presented in the form of either
anomaly contours or profile plots
Anomaly contour maps
- the values thus reduced/corrected are marked at the stations.
- contours connecting equal values are then drawn on the map to give
what are known as ANOMALY CONTOUR MAPS

- magnetic anomaly maps of this type have been extensively used for
interpretation of magnetic data

x
x A’
x1 x
3 x

Adjusted Z 
x
x1
x
2
x x13
x X- data points
x1 x
1
x x x12
x
x x x11
x
A A’
x A Dist along profile 

Contour plot Profile plot along AA’

Figure Total field aeromagnetic data. The parameters of the inducing
field are I = 83◦ and D = −32◦. Data are contoured in nT (Raglan
deposit, Quebec, Canada).
 Awash River

Thermal pools and

stream

Figure a) Total field magnetic anomaly b) upward continued (up to 100 m) and c) residual maps of the Gergedi thermal springs, Wonji,
Main Ethiopian Rift. The survey lines are marked Lines 1,2, 3 and 4. Electrical surveys were carried out on Lines 1 and 2.
Overlaid on the maps are also the main land features (a) and possible faults/lineaments (c).
 Profile section plots
- this is another way of presenting the data whereby data along
preferentially selected (intensity vs distance along profile) cross
section of the contour are drawn to obtain PROFILE SECTION
PLOTS.
From the resulting plots, interpretation may be done either qualitatively
or quantitatively.
Qualitative Interpretation
- qualitative interpretation is accomplished from close examination of
the resulting anomaly maps or profile plots and one can obtain
the information on
- the location of an anomalous target or causative body,
- the shape of the anomalous target,
- the depth of the target below the surface,
- the contrast in susceptibility, etc.
i. Location- the location of the anomalous target is indicated by
- region of concentration of contours showing high magnitude/
amplitude anomaly regions
- region of maxima minima and/or cross over points on profile plots
ii. Shape
- from the shape of the anomaly contours or profile plots one can
tell something about the shape of the target
 - Examples of magnetic profiles over objects of different shapes

BZ BZ

x
x x
x
x
x x

14 dip
Spherical target Fault Cylinder (pipe) Vertical sheet
(prism)

iii. The depth to the causative body

- a change in spacing of the anomaly contours may indicate a
change in depth, i.e. the smaller the spacing between the
contours (and the larger the gradient) the shallower the
source
- flattening or sharpening of the profile section plot are indicative
of depth
 iv. Susceptibility contrast between the target and host rock
- these are indicated by the width of the profile section plot and
the slope of the profile plot around the crossover points
(steep gradients in the plot show large contrasts)

Quantitative Interpretation

Magnetic data are also interpreted quantitatively to obtain information

on the depth, the susceptibility, etc. of the causative body,
although these interpretations are less accurate and more difficult.

For example, for a long cylindrical target

( a monopole) the depth can be
approximated from the profile plot 1
Z max


2

- the depth can be approximated from

x1 2 x
Z 1.3 X 1 2
by measuring X1/2 from the plot.