LOAD FLOW

ANALYSIS
Group: QPAL
Presented By: Justin Josh Delloro
Kurt Marbin Calicdan
Erwin Fernandez
Rhod Joseph Cervantes
Lemuel Cudal
OBJECTIVE OF THE LESSON:
 To understand the importance of load flow
studies in power system analysis

 To define load flow model; and

 Learn the different data categories

WHAT IS LOAD FLOW
ANALYSIS?
 Load flow analysis is a critical computational
procedure in power system analysis, used to assess
the steady-state performance of the power system.
It supports the planning, design, and operation of
power systems by calculating voltage levels, power
flows, and the impact of different operating
conditions and equipment configurations. This
analysis is performed using specialized computer
programs to ensure accuracy and efficiency.
LOAD FLOW STUDIES
 It determines the voltage magnitude, phase angle, and power
flow (active and reactive) at each bus within an electrical power
system. By knowing the power consumption of all buses and the
power generation at each generator, engineers can compute the
power flows in each transmission line and transformer across the
network.
 It also ensures that the power system meets its performance
criteria while optimizing investment and operational costs.
Real time load flows (online) that incorporate data input from the
actual networks are typically used by utilities in automatic
Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems. Such
systems are used primarily as operating tools for optimization of
generation, var control, dispatch, losses, and tie line control.
LOAD FLOW STUDIES
 Line flows and bus voltages fluctuate constantly by small
amounts because loads change constantly as lights, motors, and
other loads are turned on and off. These small fluctuations can
be ignored in calculating the steady-state effects on system
equipment.
 As the load distribution, will vary during different time periods,
it may be necessary to obtain load flow solutions representing
different system conditions such as peak load, average load, or
light load. These solutions will be used to determine either
optimum operating modes for normal conditions or how the
system will respond to abnormal conditions
The load flow model is also the basis for several other types of
studies such as short-circuit, stability, motor starting, and
harmonic studies.
IMPORTANCE OF LOAD
FLOW STUDIES
 Power flow studies are very helpful when making future
plans by considering and analyzing various hypothetical
situations related to electricity.
Load flow studies can get information about the voltage
level (V) and the voltage phase angle (δ) on each bus
under steady-state conditions. This is important because
the magnitude of the bus voltage must be maintained
within a defined limit
Load or power flow analysis is essential for the
operation of the power system under current operating
conditions, upgrading, and future capacity expansion.
OBJECTIVE OF LOAD FLOW
ANALYSIS
The primary objective of load flow analysis
is to determine the voltage magnitude and
phase angle at each bus and the active
(real) and reactive power flow in each
transmission line and transformer within a
power system. This analysis helps
understand the power system's steady-state
performance under various operating
conditions.
PURPOSE OF LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS
 COMPONENT OR CIRCUIT LOADINGS: Identifying how much
power each component or circuit is carrying helps prevent
overloads.
 STEADY-STATE BUS VOLTAGES: Ensuring voltage levels are
within acceptable ranges across the system.
 REACTIVE POWER FLOWS: Managing the reactive power to
maintain voltage levels and improve efficiency.
 TRANSFORMER TAP SETTINGS: Adjusting transformers to
ensure voltage regulation
 SYSTEM LOSSES: Calculating losses in the system to improve
efficiency.
 GENERATOR EXCITER/REGULATOR VOLTAGE SET POINTS:
Setting appropriate voltages for generators to ensure stable
operation.
 PERFORMANCE UNDER EMERGENCY CONDITIONS: Analyzing
how the system responds to sudden changes or failures.
COMPUTER PROGRAMS
Load flow analysis utilizes two types of computer
programs:

 STATIC (OFFLINE) MODELS: Used for system

planning and analysis. These models simulate steady-
state conditions without real-time data. Most load flow
studies for system analysis are based on this.
 DYNAMIC (REAL-TIME) MODELS: Integrated with
actual network data, typically used by utilities in
SCADA systems for real-time optimization.
SYSTEM REPRESENTATION
 In utility and industrial plant electrical
systems, it is crucial to have a simplified
visual representation of the entire system.
This helps in understanding how the system
operates under various conditions. The
single-line diagram serves this purpose
effectively.
SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM

Figure 1
BUS AND GENERATOR
REPRESENTATION

Figure 2
REPRESENTATION OF LOADS,
LINES AND TRANSFORMERS

Figure 3
INPUT DATA
 Input data refers to the essential system
information displayed on the single-line
diagram, which defines the configuration,
location, and size of loads, generation, and
equipment within an electrical power system.
This data is systematically organized to create a
mathematical model for each power system
component and illustrate how these components
interconnect.
INPUT DATA
SYSTEM DATA
In load flow analysis, system data is typically represented
using the per unit (pu) system, which simplifies the
calculations by normalizing electrical quantities to a
common base. This approach is preferred over working with
physical units like volts, amperes, and ohms, as it helps
manage the wide range of values and makes calculations
more manageable.
INPUT DATA
Per Unit System
Base kVA (or MVA): A chosen reference power level for the entire
system. For industrial systems, a base of 10,000 kVA (10 MVA) is
common, while utility systems often use a base of 100 MVA.

 Base Voltage: Selected for each voltage level in the system.

Typically, the nominal voltage (the standard operating voltage) is
chosen as the base voltage to simplify analyses and minimize errors.
 INPUT DATA
Conversion to Per Unit Representation

Base Impedance and Current: Once the base kVA and base voltage are
selected, they determine the base impedance and current for the system. These
base values are used to convert actual system parameters into per-unit values.

Ex: If you have a system with a base of 10 MVA and a base voltage of 10 kV, these
values are used to normalize all other electrical quantities. This makes the analysis
easier and more consistent, regardless of the actual system size and parameters.
INPUT DATA
BUS DATA

Bus data is crucial in load flow analysis as it

describes each bus (or node) in the power
system along with the loads and shunts
connected to it.
KEY COMPONENTS
OF

BUS DATA:
Bus Number: Serves as the primary identifier for the bus,
used to define line connections and retrieve bus-specific
output during program execution.
 Bus Name: A descriptive name for the bus, used for
informational purposes to make the output more
understandable.
 Bus Type: Categorizes buses for load flow solutions.
Common types include:
a. Load Buses: Buses without generators, can be load
points or interconnection points.
b. Generator Buses: Buses with generators, may also
have loads connected.
c. Swing (Slack) Buses: Special generator buses that
adjust power to balance system losses.
d. Disconnected Buses: Temporarily de-energized buses,
not included in the load flow solution.
 Load: Entered in MW and Mvar at nominal voltage, usually
treated as a constant MVA. In some cases, a constant current or
impedance component is included to reflect voltage dependency.
 Shunts: Entered in Mvar at nominal voltage, with proper sign
conventions to distinguish reactors from capacitors.
 Per Unit Voltage and Angle: Specifies the voltage magnitude
and phase angle in per unit values for each bus.
 Bus Base kV: Allows output reports to show voltages in kV and
currents in amperes.
INPUT
DATA
GENERATOR DATA

 Generator data is essential for each generator within

the power system, including the system's swing
generator. This data specifies the generator's power
output and details how voltage is controlled.
KEY COMPONENTS OF
GENERATOR DATA
 Real Power Output (MW): The actual electrical power produced
by the generator.
 Maximum Reactive Power Output (Mvar): The upper limit of
reactive power the generator can produce, indicating the maximum
reactive capability.
 Minimum Reactive Power Output (Mvar): The lower limit of
reactive power the generator can absorb or produce.
 Scheduled Voltage (per unit): The target voltage level the
generator aims to maintain.
 Generator In-Service/Out-of-Service Code: Indicates whether
the generator is operational (in-service) or not (out-of-service).
INPUT DATA
BRANCH DATA

Data is also entered in the “Branch” which refers to all

the elements that connect two buses in an electrical
power system. These elements include transmission
lines, cables, series reactors, series capacitors, and
transformers.
KEY COMPONENTS OF
BRANCH DATA
Resistance: Represents the opposition to current flow within the
branch.
Reactance: Indicates the opposition to the change in current flow,
contributing to the inductive and capacitive properties of the branch.
Charging Susceptance (Shunt Capacitance): This represents the
capacitive effect, which is usually divided equally and placed at both
ends of the transmission line in the π model.
Line Ratings: Specified in amperes or MVA, indicating the maximum
current or power the line can safely carry. Current ratings can be
converted to MVA using the base voltage.
In-Service/Out-of-Service Code: Indicates whether the line is
operational or not.
Line-Connected Shunts: Additional components connected to the
line, such as capacitors or reactors, used for voltage control and
reactive power management.
Line ratings are normally input in ampere ratings
 Formula: For converting line current ratings to MVA:

OR

 Series reactors, capacitors, or transformers typically

do not have a charging susceptance term since their
primary function differs from transmission lines.
 INPUT DATA
TRANSFORMER DATA

In load flow analysis, transformers require additional data beyond the basic branch
data. This data can either be part of the branch data or a separate category,
depending on the load flow program used.

Transformer data includes tap settings, tap angles, maximum and minimum tap
positions, and scheduled voltage ranges. This data is essential for correctly
modeling transformers, especially LTC transformers, and ensuring accurate voltage
control. Understanding the tap convention and off-nominal tap representation is
crucial for reliable load flow analysis.
KEY COMPONENTS OF TRANSFORMER
DATA
Tap Setting (per unit): Specifies the transformer tap position in per
unit values.
Tap Angle (degrees): The phase angle of the tap setting.
Maximum Tap Position: The highest allowable tap position for the
transformer.
Minimum Tap Position: The lowest allowable tap position for the
transformer.
Scheduled Voltage Range: The desired voltage range controlled by
the transformer, which may include a step size for load tap changing
(LTC) transformers or a continuous tap approximation for a fixed
scheduled voltage.
Load Tap Changing (LTC) Transformers: The last three data items
are specifically for LTC transformers, which automatically adjust their
tap settings to control the voltage on one side of the transformer.
HOW TO PERFORM LOAD FLOW STUDIES

STEPS IN LOAD FLOW STUDIES

The load flow study involves the following three general

steps:

Modelling of power system components and network.

Development of load flow equations.
Solving the load flow equations using numerical techniques.
HOW TO PERFORM LOAD FLOW STUDIES
Methods in Load Flow Analysis

Gauss-Seidel Method - one of the most common types of analysis. The

advantages of this system are its simplicity in operation, limited computational
power required, and less time to complete. However, its slow rate of convergence
results in many iterations. A greater number of buses increases these iterations.
Newton–Raphson Method - more sophisticated method, using the quadratic
convergence, and can be used for more complex situations. This method takes
fewer iterations to reach convergence, and therefore also takes less computer
time. It also is more accurate since it is less sensitive to complicating factors such
as slack bus selection or regulation transformers. One disadvantage is that
programming can be complicated and requires a large computer memory.
Fast Decoupled Method - Main advantage of this method is that it uses less
computer memory. The speed of calculation is 5x faster than the Newton–Raphson
method, making it a popular choice for real-time management of power grids.
However, it can be less accurate since assumptions are used to obtain fast
calculations. Since it is more difficult to change this computer program to look for
other problems such as power system security or flow, its scope is limited.
HOW TO PERFORM LOAD FLOW STUDIES
Ways to Perform Load Flow Studies
Mathematical Analysis:
Step 1 – Represent the system by its single-line diagram.
Step 2 – Convert all quantities to per unit
Step 3 – Draw the impedance diagram.
Step 4 – Obtain the Ybus matrix.
Step 5 – Classify the buses (swing bus, or generator bus, or load buses)
Step 6 – Start answering the missing variables, by assumptions (unless it is
specified otherwise).
Step 7 – Find approximations for the real and reactive power that we are
given, using the assumed and given values for voltage/angles/admittance.
Step 8 – Write the Jacobian Matrix for the first iteration of the Newton
Raphson Method.
Step 9 – Solve for the unknown differences, use Cramers Rule.
Step 10 – Repeat step 7 – 9 iteratively until we obtain an accurate value.
HOW TO PERFORM LOAD FLOW STUDIES
Ways to Perform Load Flow Studies
Software Analysis:
 Using software simplifies the carrying out of a load flow study. However, the
selection of input data required, level of detail to model, verification and
interpretation of the output and utilizing this to achieve the required design still
requires the input of a skilled electrical engineer.
 Usable Programs:
 ETAP
 SKM
 EasyPower
 PSS
 Nelpan

 Software is utilized in most of the realistic or real-time conditions since they are
easier. In doing this, the electrical engineer builds a network of
nodes interconnected by admittances (impedances).
 Power system analysis software is an excellent tool for studying power systems,
but should not be used as a substitute for knowledge and experience.
HOW TO PERFORM LOAD FLOW STUDIES
Load Flow Software Capabilites

Automatically adjust transformer tap & LTC/voltage regulator

settings
User-controlled load flow calculation convergence parameters
Compare & analyze multiple reports using load flow result analyzer
Include effect of phase-shifting transformers
View power flow results graphically
Evaluate critical & marginal limit violations
Simultaneously solve three-phase & single-phase system load flow
Isolated single-phase source modeling
HOW TO PERFORM LOAD FLOW STUDIES
Load Flow Software Capabilites
Each system node has four key parameters
Active power (P)
Reactive power (Q )
Voltage magnitude (V)
Voltage phase angle (δ)

In defining nodes in a software model, the engineer

typically considers three types:
Load Bus [P-Q bus] - a bus where the real and reactive power are
specified.
Generator Bus [P-V bus] - a bus in which the voltage and real power
generation is known.
Slack Bus (Swing bus) - where the voltage magnitude and phase are
assumed known.
CONCLUSIONS

Designers, operators of industrial electrical

systems, and utility engineers find value in tools that
predict system performance under various conditions
before they occur. These tools help prevent costly
outages, equipment damage, and potential loss of life.
Load flow solutions allow for studying systems in real
or hypothetical situations, leading to better diagnosis
and improvement of the system. This analysis aids in
current operations and future planning.
REFERENCES

https://www.omazaki.co.id/en/load-flow-study-analysis/

 IEEE Recommended Practice for Industrial and Commercial

Power Systems Analysis – The IEEE Brown Book
END OF
PRESENTATION
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