Architectural Science III

( heating, cooling & ventilation) : Arch

4242

SEFINEW E.
 Chapter one
Heat and temperature
Contents
• Introduction to heat & temperature
• Heat transfer
• Humidity
• Air flow
 Heat and temperature

Heat: is a form of energy, contained in

substances as molecular motion or appearing
as electromagnetic radiation in space. Its unit
is joule(J) , Kg.m/s2
Heat is measured in joules (J) which is a
measure of work done. Its unit is joule(J) ,
Kg.m/s2
The rate of expenditure of energy or doing
work or of heat loss is measured in watts (W)
1 watt is = 1 Joule per second 1 W =1 J/s
 Heat and temperature

Temperature (T): is the symptom of the

presence of heat in a substance.
The Celsius scale is based on water: its
freezing point taken as 0◦C and its boiling
point (at normal atmospheric pressure) as
100◦ C.
The Kelvin scale starts with the ‘absolute
zero the total absence of heat. Thus 0◦C =
273.15◦K
 Heat and temperature

Specific heat: This is the quantity of heat

required to elevate the temperature of unit mass
of a substance by one degree, thus it is measured
in units of J/kg.K.
Latent heat of a substance is the amount of heat
(energy) absorbed by unit mass of the substance
at change of state (from solid to liquid or liquid to
gaseous) without any change in temperature. This
is measured in J/kg, e.g. for water:
– latent heat of fusion (ice to water) at 0◦C =335
kJ/kg
– latent heat of evaporation at 100◦C=2261 kJ/kg
 Heat transfer
Heat flow
Can take place in three
forms
1. conduction within a
body or bodies in
contact, by the ‘spread’
of molecular movement
2. convection from a solid
body to a fluid (liquid or
gas) or vice-versa.
3. radiation from a body
with a warmer surface to
another which is cooler.
 Heat transfer

The magnitude of any such flow can be

measured in two ways:
(a) as heat flow rate (Q), or heat flux, i.e. the
total flow in unit time through a defined
area of a body or space, or within a defined
system, in units of J/s, which is a watt (W)
(b) as heat flux density (or density of heat flow
rate), i.e. the rate of heat flow through unit
area of a body or space, in W/m2.
 Heat transfer
Conduction

symbol Stands for Defined as unit

Q Heat flow the total flow in unit time J/s = W

rate
λ Conductivity measured as the heat flow W/m.K
density in a 1-m thick
body with a one degree
temperature difference

K-value Kappa conductivity correction

factors
C Conductanc measurement of the rate λ/b= W/m2K
e of heat loss through a
structure
U-value Transmittan measurement of the rate W/m2K
ce of heat loss through a
structure
R Resistance The reciprocal of the U- m2K/W
 Heat transfer
Conduction

Conduction
depends also on a property of the material known as
conductivity (λ), measured as the heat flow density
(W/m2) in a 1-m thick body (i.e. the length of heat flow
path is 1 m), with a one degree temperature
difference, in units of W.m/m 2K = W/m.K
Materials with low conductivity are referred to as
insulating materials.
Before using such λ values for U-value calculations,
they should be corrected by one or more conductivity
correction factors: κ (kappa), which are additive:
 Heat transfer
Conduction

Conductance(C) is conductivity property of a

physical body measured between the two
surfaces of the wall. For a single layer it is the
conductivity, divided by thickness (λ/b).
Transmittance, or U-value A measurement
of the rate of heat loss through a structure
U-value includes the surface effects and it is
the most frequently used measure.
This is the heat flow density (W/m2) with 1 K
temperature difference (T) between air inside
and air outside, in units of W/m2K.
Heat transfer
Conduction
 Heat transfer
Conduction

The reciprocal of the U-

value is the air-to-air
resistance (R ,in m2K/W)
which is the sum of
component resistances:
resistances of the surfaces
and of the body of the
element (wall, roof etc.),
e.g. for a wall of two
layers:
Heat transfer Conduction

The R-value of any homogeneous layer is its

thickness (b for breadth) in m, divided by the
conductivity of its material:
The reciprocal of this resistance is
conductance, C in W/m2K. Layers through
which heat flows, can be represented as
resistances in series, thus the resistances of
layers are additive.
 Heat transfer
Conduction

Various elements of an envelope are heat flow

paths (with resistances) in parallel, and in
this case the (area weighted) conductance's
(transmittances) are additive.
The surface resistance depends on the
degree of exposure and – to some extent – on
surface qualities.
Heat transfer Conduction

For example, a 220 mm brick wall (λ = 0.84

W/m.K), with a 15 mm cement render (λ =
0.6 W/m.K) and surface resistances of Rsi=
0.14 and Rso = 0.06 m2 K.W
 Heat transfer
Convection

Convection
 heat transfer is a function of the convection coefficient, hc (in
W/m2K)

 The magnitude of hc depends on the position of the surface,

the direction of the heat flow and the velocity of the fluid. For
example
 for vertical surfaces (horizontal heat flow)= 3W/m 2K
 For horizontal surfaces
• heat flow up (air to ceiling, floor to room air) 4.3 W/m 2K
• heat flow down (air to floor, ceiling to room air) 1.5 W/m 2K
(as hot air rises, the upward heat transfer is stronger)
 Heat transfer
Convection

Cont….
If the surface is exposed to wind, or
mechanically generated air movement (i.e. if
it is forced convection), then the convection
coefficient is much higher: hc= 5.8 +
4.1v where v is air velocity in m/s.
 Heat transfer
Radiation

Radiation
heat transfer is proportional to the difference
of the 4th power of absolute temperatures of
the emitting and receiving surfaces and
depends on their surface qualities, measured
by non-dimensional numbers:
 reflectance (ρ) is a decimal fraction indicating
how much of the incident radiation is
reflected by a surface.
 Heat transfer

Cont….
absorptance (a) is expressed as a fraction of
that of the ‘perfect absorber’, the theoretical
black body (for which a = 1), and its value is
high for dark surfaces, low for light or shiny
metallic surfaces. For everyday surfaces it
varies between a = 0.9 for a black asphalt
and a = 0.2 for a shiny aluminum or white
painted surface. For any opaque surface ρ +
a = 1.
 Heat transfer

Cont….
emittance (e) is also a decimal fraction, a measure of
the ability to emit radiation, relative to the ‘black
body’, the perfect emitter. For an ordinary surface a
=e for the same wavelength (or temperature) of
radiation, but many surfaces have selective
properties, e.g. high absorptance for solar (6000 ◦C)
radiation but low emittance at ordinary temperatures
(<100◦C) e.g. a6000 > e60. Such selective surfaces
are useful for the absorber panels of solar collectors,
but the reverse is desirable where heat dissipation
(radiation to the sky) is to be promoted: e.g. a6000 <
e60.
 Heat transfer

Cont….
White paints (especially a titanium oxide)
have such properties. A shiny metal surface is
non-selective: a6000 = e60.
The calculation of radiant heat exchange is
complicated, but it is quite simple for the
effect which is most important for buildings:
solar radiation. If the flux density of incident
radiation is known (referred to as global
irradiance, G) then the radiant (solar) heat
input rate would be:
 Humidity

Humid air: psychrometry

Psychrometer: a hygrometer ( an instrument for
measuring humidity) consisting of wet and dry-
bulb thermometers, the difference in the two
thermometer readings being used to determine
atmospheric humidity.
Air: is a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen, but the
atmosphere around us is humid air, it contains
varying amounts of water vapour.
At any given temperature the air can only support
a limited amount of water vapour, when it is said to
be saturated.
 Humidity
Technical terms
 Dry bulb temperature(DBT):
temperature of dry air
 Wet bulb temperature(WBT):
temperature of wet air
 Saturation line: indicating the
maximum moisture content the
air could support at any
temperature which is the
saturation humidity (SH)
 Absolute humidity(AH): Structure of the
psychrometric chart.
Moisture content at a given
temperature of dry air in units
of g/Kg
 Humidity

Technical terms
Relative humidity (RH): is
the ratio between the actual
amount of water vapour in
the air and the maximum
amount of water vapour
(saturation humidity) that
the air can hold at that air
temperature Relative humidity curves.

vapour pressure (pv): the

partial pressure of water
vapour in the given Where pt = total barometric pressure
atmosphere. and
Pvs =saturation vapour pressure is
 Humidity

Humidity is best measured by the wet-and-dry

bulb (whirling) psychrometer or an aspirated
psychrometer
wet bulb depression= DBT - WBT

Aspirated psychrometer (a) and a

whirling
psychrometer (b).

In saturated air there is no

evaporation, no cooling, thus WBT
= DBT.
 Psychrometric processes

Status point is intersection of the DBT and

WBT lines that can be marked on the
psychrometric chart which indicates both the
RH (interpolated between the RH curves) and
the AH values.
Enthalpy (H) is the heat content of the air
relative to 0◦ C and 0 humidity. It is measured
in kJ/kg, i.e. the heat content of 1 kg air.
Specific volume is the volume of air occupied
by 1 kg of air (at normal pressure), in m3/kg. It
is the reciprocal of density, kg/m3
 Psychrometric processes

Heating is represented by the status point

moving horizontally to the right. As the DBT
increases, with no change in moisture
content, the relative humidity is reducing
 Psychrometric processes

Cooling lowers the DBT, the status point

moves horizontally to the left. This causes the
RH to increase, but the AH is not changed.
Where this horizontal line reaches the
saturation curve, the dew point temperature
(corresponding to the given AH) can be read.
 Psychrometric processes

Humidification, i.e. evaporation of moisture

into an air volume is said to be adiabatic, if
no heat is added or removed. This causes a
reduction of temperature (DBT) but an
increase of humidity (both AH and RH). The
status point moves up to the left, along a
constant WBT line
 Psychrometric processes

Adiabatic dehumidification takes place when

air is passed through some chemical sorbent
(solid, such as silica gel, or liquid, such as
glycol spray) which removes some of the
moisture content (by absorption or
adsorption). This process releases heat, thus
the DBT will increase, whilst the humidity
(both AH and RH) is reduced
 Humidity

 Humidity influences thermal comfort. The higher the

relative humidity, the less heat a person is able to lose heat
through the evaporation of moisture on the skin, and so the
hotter they will feel.
 Conversely, air that is too dry can cause problems such as
dry eyes, nose, ears and throat. Typically, a relative
humidity of 40 to 60% is appropriate in many buildings.
 Humidity also affects the performance of buildings, causing
slip hazards, damage to equipment and the corrosion and
decay of the building fabric as well as poor performance of
insulation.
 High humidity environments have a lot of vapour in the air,
which prevents the evaporation of sweat from the skin.
 Air flow

Air speed is defined as the rate of air

movement at a point, without regard to
direction.
• velocity (v) m/s
• mass flow rate (mr) kg/s
• volume flow rate (vr) m3/s or L/s
Natural air flow is caused by pressure
difference: it will flow from a zone of high
pressure towards a zone of low pressure.
Pressure differences may be due to two effects:
 Air flow

Stack effect occurs when the air inside a

vertical stack is warmer than the outside air
(provided that there are both inlet and outlet
openings). The warmer air will rise and will be
replaced at the bottom of the stack by cooler
outside air.
 Air flow

Wind effects are normally much more

powerful. On the windward side of a building a
positive pressure-field will develop, where the
pressure is proportional to the square of the
velocity. At the same time a negative (reduced)
pressure field may develop on the leeward side
and the difference between the two pressures
can generate quite a strong cross-ventilation.
thankyou