BIOMEDICAL

INSTRUMENTATION

Unit 1
Presented by
Dr.A.V.Srinath.,DECE.,B.E.,M.E.,Ph.D.
Assistant Professor
Sri Manakula Vinayagar Engineering College
 UNIT 1
 Electrocardiogram (ECG),
 Electroencephalogram (EEG),
 Electromyogram (EMG),
 Electrooculogram (EOG),
 Electroretinogram (ERG),
 Recording Electrodes –
 Electrode-tissue interface,
 polarization,
 skin contact impedance,
 motion artifacts,
 Silver-Silver Chloride electrodes,
 Electrodes for ECG,
 Electrodes for EEG,
 Electrodes of EMG,
 Electrical conductivity of electrode jellies and creams,
 microelectrodes,
 Needle electrodes
 The Importance of Bio-
medical Instrumentation
Diagnosis and therapy depend heavily on the use of medical
instrumentation.
Medical procedures:
Medicine can be defined as a multistep procedure on an
individual by a physician, group of physician, or an institute,
repeated until the symptoms disappear
Medical procedure
1) Collection of data - qualitative and/or quantitative
2) Analysis of data
3) Decision making
4) Treatment planning based on the decision
Biomedical Instrumentation System

All biomedical instruments must interface with

biological materials. That interface can by direct
contact or by indirect contact
 Components of Biomedical
Instrumentation System
Biomedical instrumentation systems measure, record, and analyze
physiological parameters for diagnosing, monitoring, and treating
medical conditions. Key components include:
1. Sensors and Transducers: Convert physiological signals to
electrical signals (e.g., ECG electrodes, pressure sensors).
2. Signal Conditioning Equipment: Enhance signal quality using
amplifiers, filters, and ADCs.
3. Data Acquisition System: Digitize conditioned signals using
ADCs, multiplexers, and sample-and-hold circuits.
4. Signal Processing Unit: Analyze digital signals using
microprocessors and DSPs.
 Components of Biomedical
Instrumentation System
5. Output Display Devices: Present data to healthcare
professionals via monitors, graphical displays, and alarms.
6. Data Storage and Management: Store patient data using
hard drives, cloud storage, and databases.
7. User Interface: Facilitate interaction with keyboards,
touchscreens, and software.
8. Power Supply: Provide electrical power using batteries and
adapters.
9. Communication Interface: Enable data transfer with USB,
Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, and Ethernet.
10. Calibration and Maintenance Systems: Ensure accuracy
and reliability with calibration tools and maintenance protocols.
 Classifications of Biomedical
Instruments
 The sensed quantity
 The principle of transduction
 The organ system for measurement
 The clinical medicine specialties
Based on the activities involved in the medical care, medical
instrumentation may be divided into three categories:
• Diagnostic devices
• Therapeutic devices
• Monitoring devices
• Embedded sensors
 THE ORIGIN OF BIO POTENTIAL
Definition - The amount of energy in a living organism which can be
transformed into kinetic energy.

Cell

 Cell is the basic living unit of human body

 Each organ in our human body consists of different cells which are
responsible for particular function
 It can be viewed only by biological microscope.
 Each cell consists of nucleus
 Nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm
 Nucleus is separated form nuclear
membrane
 Cytoplasm is separated from the
surrounding fluid by
the cell membrane
 RESTING & ACTION POTENTIAL

Resting Potential
The membrane potential caused by different
concentration of ions
Action Potential
The positive potential of the cell membrane during excitation
 RESTING POTENTIAL
BASIC CONCEPT
Cell membranes are selectively permeable, allowing
ions like potassium (K+) and chloride (Cl-) to pass,
but blocking sodium (Na+). This selective
permeability causes two main effects:
1. Sodium Imbalance: Na+ concentration inside the
cell is much lower than outside, making the outside
of the cell more positive.
2. Potassium Compensation: To balance the
electric charge, additional K+ ions enter the cell,
increasing the K+ concentration inside. However, a
perfect charge balance is never achieved.

Equilibrium is reached with a potential

difference across the
membrane ,negative on inside and
positive on outside called Resting
Potential.
Polarized Cell during RP
 RESTING POTENTIAL IN NERVE CELL
 A nerve cell has a voltage of approximately 70
millivolts (mV) across its membrane.
 The voltage is generated by a membrane pump
powered by ATP.
 The membrane pump moves sodium ions (Na+)
out and potassium ions (K+) into the cell.
 The neuron’s cytoplasm has more potassium
ions (K+) and fewer sodium ions (Na+) than the
surrounding medium.
 The cell membrane is leakier to potassium ions
(K+) than to sodium ions (Na+).
 Potassium ions (K+) leak out of the cell, creating
a negative charge inside the membrane.
 This charge difference is called the neuron's
Resting Potential.
 Maintaining the resting potential requires a
constant supply of ATP for active transport.
 RESTING POTENTIAL PROPOGATION
OUTSIDE Na+ Cl-
K+

Electrostatic Force Force of Diffusion

+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

open Closed 3Na/2K no open

channel channel pump channel channel

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - -

Force of Diffusion Electrostatic Force

INSIDE K +
Na
+ Cl-

- 65 mV
Pr-
12
K = Potassium; Na = Sodium; Cl = Chloride; Pr = proteins
+ + - -
 ACTION POTENTIAL
BASIC CONCEPT-
 When a section of the cell
membrane is excited, it allows
some sodium ions (Na+) to enter.
The movement of Na+ ions
creates an ionic current.
 This current further reduces the
membrane's barrier to Na+ ions.
 Result: An avalanche effect
causes Na+ ions to rush into the
cell.
 Potassium ions (K+) try to leave
the cell but move slower than Na+
ions.
 This results in a slightly positive
potential inside the cell, known as
the Action Potential.
Depolarized cell during AP
 WAVEFORM SHOWING
.
DEPOLARIZATION &REPOLARIZATION
IN ACTION POTENTIAL
 The cell that displays an
action Potential is said to be
depolarized; the process of
changing from resting state
to action potential is called
Depolarization.

 Once the rush of Na+ ions

through the cell membrane
has stopped, the membrane
reverts back to its original
condition wherein the
passage of Na+ ions from
outside to inside is blocked,
this process is called
Repolarization.
 ACTION POTENTIAL PROPOGATION

It “travels” down the axon (Actually, it does not

move. Rather the potential change resulting from
Na+ influx disperses to the next voltage-gated
channel, triggering another action potential there).
 PROPOGATION OF POTENTIALS IN NERVE IMPULSE
 1. Impulse Starts: An impulse begins when a neuron
is stimulated by another neuron or an external signal,
causing the membrane to depolarize locally.

 2. Sodium Gates Open: Sodium channels open,

allowing Na+ ions to enter the cell, reversing the
membrane's charge.

 3. Action Potential: The influx of Na+ ions creates an

Action Potential, making the inside of the membrane
more positive.

 4. Potassium Gates Open: Potassium channels open,

allowing K+ ions to leave the cell, starting to restore
the negative charge inside.

 5. Resting Potential Restored: The exit of K+ ions re-

establishes the Resting Potential, making the inside
of the membrane negative and the outside positive
again.

 6. Impulse Travels: The impulse moves along the

axon as each segment of the membrane depolarizes
and repolarizes, like falling dominoes resetting.
 Electrocardiograph
Working principle of electrocardiograph:
•The electrocardiograph (ECG) detects small electric currents
generated by heart muscle contractions.
•Electrodes are placed on the patient's arms, legs, and six chest
locations for a resting ECG.
•Special jelly is used to attach the electrodes to the skin.
•Electrodes pick up the currents and transmit them to an amplifier
inside the ECG machine.
•The amplifier records the currents as wavy lines on a moving sheet of
paper.
•A sensitive lever traces the changes in current on the paper.
•Modern ECG machines can also connect to an oscilloscope to display
the currents on a screen.
 Electrocardiogram (ECG)
An electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) is a test that records the electrical signals of
your heart. It shows how fast your heart is beating, the rhythm of your heartbeats
(steady or irregular), and the electrical pathway through your heart.
 Electrocardiogram (ECG)
Components of an ECG

•A standard ECG uses 12 leads to measure the electrical activity of heart from
different angles.
•The leads are attached to skin with sticky patches called electrodes.
•The electrodes are placed on chest, arms, and legs.

The ECG tracing shows a series of waves that represent the different stages of the
heart's electrical cycle. The waves are:

• P wave: Represents the electrical impulse that starts in the atria (the upper
chambers of heart) and causes them to contract.
• QRS complex: Represents the electrical impulse that travels down to the ventricles
(the lower chambers of heart) and causes them to contract.
• T wave: Represents the ventricles repolarizing (relaxing).
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
 Electroencephalogram (EEG)
2. Signal Detection:
 Neurons in the brain communicate through electrical impulses.
When a large number of neurons fire synchronously, they produce a
small electrical field.
 The electrodes detect these electrical fields. Each electrode
measures the voltage difference between different parts of the brain.
3. Signal Amplification:
 The electrical signals detected by the electrodes are very weak. The
EEG machine amplifies these signals to make them readable.
 The amplified signals are then sent to a computer or a recording
device.
4. Data Recording:
 The EEG records the electrical activity as a series of wavy lines,
with each line representing the activity of different brain regions.
 The data is displayed on a screen or printed out on paper for
analysis. Modern EEG machines can also store data digitally for further
examination.
 Purpose and Uses of EEG
1. Diagnosing Epilepsy:
EEG is the primary tool for diagnosing epilepsy. It can detect abnormal
brain wave patterns that are characteristic of seizures.
2. Sleep Disorders:
EEG helps diagnose sleep disorders like narcolepsy and sleep apnea
by monitoring brain activity during sleep.
3. Monitoring Brain Activity:
EEG is used to monitor brain activity in patients with head injuries, brain
tumors, encephalitis (brain inflammation), and other brain diseases.
4. Evaluating Brain Function:
In patients who are in a coma, EEG can help assess the level of brain
activity and potential for recovery.
5. Research and Cognitive Studies:
EEG is extensively used in research to study brain function, cognitive
processes, and brain-computer interfaces.
 Interpreting EEG Results
Normal Patterns:
- The brain waves are analyzed in terms of frequency, amplitude, and
patterns. Normal EEG patterns vary depending on the age of the patient and
the state of arousal (awake, drowsy, asleep).

Abnormal Patterns:
- Abnormal EEG findings can include spikes, sharp waves, or slow waves
that may indicate conditions such as epilepsy, brain injury, or
encephalopathy.

Special EEG Tests:

- Sometimes, special tests such as sleep-deprived EEG, prolonged EEG
monitoring, or video EEG may be conducted to capture more information.
 Electromyogram (EMG)
• Electromyogram (EMG) is a technique
for evaluating and recording the activation
signal of muscles.
• EMG is performed by an
electromyograph, which records an
electromyogram.
• Electromyograph detects the electrical
potential generated by muscle cells when
these cells contract and relax.
Purpose of EMG
primarily used to:
1. Diagnose conditions affecting
muscle tissue and nerves.
2. Determine the cause of muscle
weakness, paralysis, or muscle
twitching.
3. Differentiate between muscle and
nerve disorders.
 How EMG Works
EMG measures the electrical activity in muscles. There are two
main types of EMG:
1. Surface EMG (sEMG): Involves placing electrodes on the skin
over the muscle. This method is non-invasive and typically used for
general muscle function studies.
2. Intramuscular EMG: Involves inserting a needle electrode
through the skin into the muscle tissue. This method provides more
detailed information about muscle activity and is commonly used in
clinical diagnostics.
 Procedure
1. Preparation: The skin over the test area is cleaned. For needle
EMG, the area might be numbed with a local anesthetic.
2. Electrode Placement:
- In sEMG, surface electrodes are adhered to the skin.
- In needle EMG, a thin needle electrode is inserted into the muscle.
3. Recording: The patient is asked to relax and then contract the
muscle. Electrical activity is recorded during both states.
4. Analysis: The recorded signals are displayed on an oscilloscope or
computer screen. They may be represented as waveforms or sounds
that correlate with
the muscle activity.
 Interpretation
 Normal Results: At rest, muscles show minimal electrical
activity. During contraction, there is a burst of electrical activity
proportional to the level of muscle effort.
 Abnormal Results: Can indicate various neuromuscular
disorders, such as:
 Neuropathies: Damage to nerves, e.g., carpal tunnel
syndrome, peripheral neuropathy.
 Myopathies: Disorders affecting muscle tissue, e.g., muscular
dystrophy, polymyositis.
 Neuromuscular Junction Disorders: Issues at the junction
between nerves and muscles, e.g., myasthenia gravis.
Interpretation
 Electrooculogram (EOG)
A human eye is roughly 2.3 cm in diameter and is almost a spherical ball
filled with some fluid. It consists of the following parts:
 Electrooculogram (EOG)
Sclera: The white, tough outer covering of the eye.
Cornea: The transparent front part of the sclera where light enters
the eye.
Iris: The colored, ringlike muscular structure behind the cornea that
adjusts exposure by regulating the size of the pupil.
Pupil: The small opening in the iris that controls the amount of light
entering the eye; its size is adjusted by the iris.
Lens: The transparent structure behind the pupil that focuses light
on the retina by changing shape with the help of ciliary muscles.
Retina: The light sensitive layer with nerve cells that convert images
into electrical impulses sent to the brain.
Optic Nerves: Include two types of nerve cells in the retina, cones
and rods.
Cones: Nerve cells sensitive to bright light, aiding in detailed central
and color vision.
Rods: Nerve cells sensitive to dim light, aiding in peripheral vision.
 Eye Muscles
 Blind Spot: No sensory nerve cells at the junction of the optic
nerve and retina, resulting in no vision at that point.
 Eye Muscles: Six muscles (medial rectus, lateral rectus,
superior rectus, inferior rectus, inferior oblique, and superior
oblique) control eye movement by providing different tensions
and torques.
 Function of the Eye:
 The human eye functions like a camera, focusing and letting in light to
produce images.
 Light rays from distant objects pass through the cornea, crystalline
lens, aqueous humor, lens, and vitreous humor, experiencing refraction
(change in direction).
 Different parts of the eye have varying refractive indices, bending light
rays to form an image on the retina.
 The retina's photoreceptor cells (rods and cones) detect light intensity
and frequency.
 The processed image is relayed to the brain via the optic nerve,
where the brain corrects the inverted image, similar to a convex lens.
Procedure
 Electroretinogram (ERG)
An electroretinogram (ERG) is a diagnostic test that measures the
electrical activity of the retina in response to light stimuli.
Types of ERG Tests
1. Full-field ERG (ffERG): Measures the overall electrical response
of the retina to a flash of light, assessing the function of both rod
and cone cells.
2. Pattern ERG (PERG): Evaluates the function of the retinal
ganglion cells by using a patterned stimulus, such as alternating
black and white checks.
3. Multifocal ERG (mfERG): Provides a detailed map of retinal
function by measuring responses from different locations on the
retina.
4. Scotopic ERG: Measures the response of the retina under low-
light conditions, primarily assessing rod function.
5. Photopic ERG: Measures the response under well-lit conditions,
primarily assessing cone function.
Electroretinogram (ERG)
 Light enters the eye through the
cornea, then passes through the
aqueous humor, which provides
nutrients and maintains eye pressure.
 The pressure from the aqueous humor
keeps the eye inflated, ensuring proper
shape for clear vision.
 The lens, controlled by the ciliary
muscles, adjusts its shape and
refractive index to focus light on the
retina.
 The vitreous chamber, filled with
vitreous humor, lies between the lens
and the retina.
 The fovea on the retina is the point of
highest visual accuracy.
 The retina's photosensitive and neural
cells generate action pulses from the
visual image, sending them to the brain
Retinal Function
 Retinal Function
 Light enters the eye and passes through neural structures to
reach the photoreceptors, rods, and cones, which are
supported by the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE).
 Rods respond to dim light, while cones are responsible for
vision in bright light and color.
 Photoreceptors transduce light into electrical signals
through a process called transduction, involving the
isomerization of the carotenoid chromophore.
 The signal from photoreceptors creates a late receptor
potential (LRP) and is processed by synapsing with
horizontal and bipolar cells, enhancing contrast via lateral
inhibition.
 Bipolar cells connect with ganglion cells, with modulation
from amacrine cells, converting slow graded signals into
action pulses for transmission to the brain.
 The retina has distinct layers: the outer nuclear layer
(photoreceptors and RPE), the outer plexiform layer (signal
processing), the inner nuclear layer (bipolar and amacrine
cells), and the inner plexiform layer (ganglion cell
connections).
 Electrophysiology of eye
 Emil du Bois-Reymond observed in 1848 that the cornea is
electrically positive relative to the back of the eye, with this potential
being a resting potential that slowly varies.
 This corneoretinal potential acts as a dipole from the retina to the
cornea, typically ranging from 0.4 to 1.0 mV.
 Eye movements create a rotating dipole source, allowing the
measurement of these movements via the electro-oculogram (EOG).
 To measure horizontal eye movements, electrodes are placed on the
outer canthi of the left and right eyes.
 When the eye rotates, a potential difference is recorded, with the
electrode in the direction of movement becoming positive.
 The EOG signal can be calibrated by having the patient look at two
known points, achieving accuracy of ±2° for angles up to ±70°, with
typical signal magnitudes ranging from 5-20 µV/°angle.
Mechanism
ELECTRODES
 Recording Electrodes
• Electrodes are used to pick up bioelectric events from the
body's surface for amplification, recording, or display.
• They convert ionic conduction in tissues to electronic
conduction necessary for measurements.
• Electrodes are also used in impedance measurements and
electrotherapy to stimulate irritable tissues.
• There are two types of electrodes: surface electrodes
(which pick up signals from tissue surfaces without
damage) and deep-seated electrodes (which detect
internal electric potential differences).
• Electrodes are also used for muscle stimulation, following
the same classification.
• Important considerations for electrodes include patient
comfort, lack of artefacts, and ease of application.
 Electrode-tissue interface
• Surface electrodes are the most commonly
used in patient monitoring for recording ECG,
EEG, and respiratory activity via impedance
pneumography.
• To avoid movement artefacts and ensure low
contact impedance, an electrolyte or electrode
paste is used as an interface between the
electrode and the skin.
• These interfaces help establish a clear contact
between the electrode and the tissue.
Electrode-tissue interface
 Polarization
 Low voltage affects current flow by
disturbing electrical double layers in a
solution.
 Polarizable electrodes have high
resistance, making them unsuitable for
steady potential measurements.
 Non-polarizable electrodes allow easy
charge exchange and have low
resistance.
 Polarizable electrodes, like stainless steel,
can retain residual charge and become
ineffective after large energy pulses.
 Non-polarizable electrodes, such as
silver/silver-chloride, quickly dissipate
charge imbalances and are preferred for
intensive care and stress testing.
 Skin contact impedance
• Bioelectrical signals are recorded
using surface metallic electrodes.
• Electrode-skin junction impedance
affects recordings and is relatively
high.
• Skin's outer layer causes most
contact impedance; proper
preparation needed.
• Measure contact impedance with an
oscillator, series resistor, and
oscilloscope.
• Different electrodes have varying
impedances: plastic, metal, and
multi-point.
• ECG electrodes' contact impedance
measured at 10–20 Hz frequency
range.
 Motion artifacts
• Motion artefact is a significant issue in biopotential
measurements, especially during exercise ECGs and long-
term monitoring in coronary care units.
• Motion of the subject can create artefacts that mask signals,
shift baselines, and cause recording errors or false alarms.
• The skin-electrolytic paste interface is the main source of
motion artefact, especially with polarizable metal-plate
electrodes.
• Agitation of the paste alters the half-cell potential, causing
variations that contribute to artefacts.
• Skin abrasion reduces motion artefact but increases easily
affected to irritation from electrodes, paste, and adhesive.
• Silver-silver chloride electrodes minimize irritation as silver
chloride is almost insoluble in chloride solutions.
 Reference electrodes
Reference electrodes provide a stable, constant potential for accurate
electrochemical measurements.
Key features include
•stability,
•reproducibility,
•low impedance,
•non-polarizability.
Common types are:
Silver/Silver Chloride (Ag/AgCl) electrode
Saturated Calomel Electrode (SCE)
Hydrogen electrode

•They are essential for pH measurements, corrosion studies, and

electrochemical sensors.
 Silver-Silver Chloride electrodes
1. Electrodes should not polarize to ensure
stable signal recording.
2. Silver-silver chloride electrodes offer
consistent performance and stability.
3. These electrodes produce minimal
potential differences, enhancing accuracy.
4. Silver-silver chloride electrodes are
nontoxic and preferred for medical use.
5. They are created by electrolysis,
depositing silver chloride on silver.
6. Pure silver and high-grade saline ensure
high-quality electrode production.
7. Chloriding current density and duration
optimize the chloride layer.
8. Optimal chloriding reduces electrode-
electrolyte impedance effectively.
Electrodes for ECG
Electrodes for EEG
Electrodes of EMG
 ELECTRICAL
CONDUCTIVITY OF
ELECTRODE JELLIES AND
CREAMS
Why are Jellies & Creams
Required?
• Ensure a good electrical contact between
electrode & the patient’s skin.

• Facilitate transfer of charge at electrode-

electrolyte interface between the 2 kinds of
charge carriers – electrons in electrode &
ions in the gel.

• Facilitate in decreasing the impedance of

human skin.
 Reason of Skin Impedance
• The outer horny layer of skin is responsible
for skin contact impedance.

• For this reason, skin preparation is essential

to obtain accurate results.

• Before the application of gel, the skin is

cleaned with an ether-meth mixture.
Constituents of Jellies &
Creams
• Comprise of ionic salts (NaCl & KCl) to
ensure bio-compatibility with Na+, K+, Cl-
ions present in skin.

• Have a particular ion concentration in tone

with the physiological ion concentration, so
that harmful diffusion of ions doesn’t occur
b/w the jelly & the body.

• Do not contain soap or phenol which causes

a marked irritation of the skin.
 Electrical Conductivity of Jellies &
Creams

• Na+, K+, Cl- ions increase electrical

conductivity of jellies & creams by
decreasing the skin impedance.

• These ions diffuse into the skin due to the

existing concentration gradient.

• Jellies & creams rapidly fill up the troughs

on electrode & skin surface, ensuring max.
contact area.
 Contact Resistance of Skin
• Low conc. NaCl electrolyte:
0.5% NaCl.

• High conc. NaCl electrolyte:

5-10% NaCl.

• Stabilization of resistance
occurs around 40 min.

• Pre-rubbing the skin lowers

initial resistance value.

• Time constant of contact

resistance is inversely
proportional to conc. of gel.
Measurement of Electrical
Conductivity of Jellies & Creams

• Electrical conductivity is measured by

means of Schering a.c. bridge circuit.

• Jelly/cream is placed in a conductivity cell

of known dimensions & cell impedance is
measured at 10 Hz.

• Resistive component of cell is calculated &

then, conductivity is found.
Schering Bridge

• R2 & C2 – fixed values.

• R1 & C1 – variable values.

• R3 = C1.R2/C2

• C3 = R1.C2/R2
Range of Resistance of Jellies &
Creams

• Depends on composition & concentration of

jellies & creams and on the thickness of gel
layer.

• Resistivity is of the order of 5-500 ohm-cm

& a thickness of around 0.3 cm.

• Resistance lies in the range of 0.5-50

ohms.
 Aggressive Gels
• High concentration of ionic salts.

• More diffusion of ions into the skin resulting in rapid

decrease in contact resistance.

• Should not be used for long term monitoring applications

as tissues can’t tolerate long exposure to salt
concentrations leading to skin irritation pbms.

• Used in short-term biosignal monitoring(stress-testing)

where instant high quality traces are required.
 Electrode Gel Pads
• Jellies & creams are
impregnated into
electrode gel pads.

• These adhere to the body

smoothly, thereby,
forming a conductive
layer.

• They act as a contact b/w

human body & the
electrode.
Jellies & Creams In ECG
Jellies & Creams In EEG
Jellies & Creams In Ultrasound
Jellies & Creams in Diathermy
 Microelectrodes

• It is an electrode of very small size, used in

electrophysiology for either recording of neural signals
or electrical stimulation of nervous tissue.
• MEAs are Circuit less chips
• Sufficiently small to be placed into cell.  Sufficiently
strong to penetrate cell membranes.
• Tip diameter: 0.05 – 10 microns.
• CMOS based MEA (Microelectrode Array) have high
spatial and temporal resolution at excellent signal
quality.
• Useful to access the behavior of electrogenic cells.
Microelectrodes
 Microelectrodes

• It penetrates the skin

to record the
potentials.
• It reduces interface
impedance.
• Single wire inside the
needle which acts as
the unipolar electrode
measuring potential at
the point of contact.
• Types are concentric,
bipolar and monopolar.
Needle electrodes
 APPLICATIONS OF BIOELECTRODES

 Cardiac Monitoring
 Infant Cardiopulmonary Monitoring Sleep Encephalography
 Diagnostic Muscle Activity
 Cardiac Electrogram
 Implanted Telemetry of Biopotentials Eye Movement