Human digestive

system
Digestion involves mechanical
breakdown of food into
particles that can be absorbed
into the blood stream
 Digestion
There are three parts to Nutrition:
1. Ingestion- process of taking food into the
digestive system

2. Digestion- the breakdown of food (either

chemically or mechanically) in
order to utilize nutrients

3. Egestion
 Ingestion DEFINE THIS;
• Mouth
– Mechanical Digestion
• MASTICATION BY TEETH
– breaking up food

– Chemical Digestion
• SALIVA CONTENTS AND GLAND
– amylase
» enzyme digests starch to maltose
–
• Ingestion DEFINE THIS;
–mucin
»slippery protein (mucus)
»protects soft lining of
digestive system
»lubricates food for easier
swallowing
–minerals NaHCO4
»neutralizes acid to
prevent tooth decay

–anti-bacterial chemicals
»kill bacteria that enter
mouth with food
 THE TONGUE
• TONGUE ROLLS
FOOD INTO
SPHERICAL LIKE
MASS CALLED
BOLUS.

• THE BOLUS IS
PUSHED BEHIND
THE MOUTH IN
SWALLOWING
mouth
break up food
digest starch
kill germs
moisten food
 DURING SWALLOWING
• EPIGLOTTIS
– CLOSES TRACHEA WHEN
SWALLOWING
– IT IS A FLAP OF CARTILAGE

– FOOD TRAVELS DOWN OESOPHAGUS

• PERISTALSIS
– INVOLUNTARY MUSCLE
CONTRACTIONS TO MOVE FOOD
ALONG
 Peristalsis
• series of
involuntary wave-
like muscle
contractions
which move food
along the
digestive tract
FOOD ENTERS THE STOMACH
VIA THE CARDIAC SPHINCTER
 STOMACH
• HAS A THICK MUSCULAR WALL LINED
WITH A FOLDED INNER LAYER CALLED
GASTRIC MUCOSA

• IN THE MUCOSA ARE GASTRIC PITS

HAVING GASTRIC GLANDS

• THE GASTRIC GLANDS SECERATE

GASTRIC JUICE
PRESENCE OF FOOD IN STOMACH
STIMULATES THE SECREATION OF
HORMONE GASTRIN FROM THE
WALLS.

GASTRIN STIMULATES
SECREATION OF GASTRIC JUICE.
 GASTRIC JUICE CONTAINS
•WATER – DISSOLVES CONSTITUENTS
•PEPSINOGEN – INACTIVE FORM OF
PEPSIN PRODUCED BY CHIEF CELLS.
HCl ACTIVATES IT TO PEPSIN.

PEPSIN BREAKS DOWN PROTEINS TO

POLYPEPTIDES.

RELEASED IN AN INACTIVE FORM TO

PREVENT SELF DIGESTION OF
STOMACH
• PRORENNIN – PRODUCED BY CHIEF
CELLS. IT IS THE INACTIVE FORM OF
RENNIN.

RENNIN CONVERTS THE SOLUBLE PROTEIN

CASEINOGEN INTO CASEIN.

CASEIN IS THEN HYDROLYSED TO PEPSIN

IT IS IMPORTANT TO MAMMALS WHO
FEED ON MILK MAINLY
• HCl – PRODUCED BY OXYNITIC/
PARIETAL CELLS.

GIVES pH OF 2 OPTIMUM MEDIUM FOR

GASTRIC ENZYME.

KILLS BACTERIA IN FOOD

ALSO ACTIVATES PRORENNIN TO RENIN

• MUCUS – PRODUCED BY GOBLET
CELLS

FORMS PROTECTIVE LAYER ON THE

STOMACH WALLS

THIS PREVENTS PEPSIN AND HCL FROM

BREAKING THE GASTRIC MUCOSA

MUCUS LUBRICATES THE FOOD

• STOMACH WALLS HAS
LONGITUDINAL AND CIRCULAR
MUSCLES THAT HELP MIX THE
FOOD.

• THIS PROCESS IS CALLED

CHURNING

• THE PROCESS RESULTS TO

FLUID CALLED CHYME
PYLORIC SPHINCTER RELAX

FOOD INTO DUODENUM

CHYME IS RELEASED GRADUALLY
OVER A PERIOD OF 3 TO 4 HOURS

ENABLES DUODENUM TO WORK

ON FOOD AT A TIME.
 ACCESSORY
ORGANSIN DUODENUM
• Pancreas
• Gall Bladder
• Spleen
 Duodenum
• FIRST PORTION OF ILLEUM

• 25CM LONG

• ARRIVAL OF ACIDIC CHYME

STIMULATES SECREATION OF
HORMONE SECRETIN FROM
PANCREASE AND CHLOESTOKININ
FROM DUODENAL WALLS
 Duodenum
• SECRETIN STIMULATES THE PANCREASE
TO SECREATE PANCREATIC JUICE.
• IT ALSO INHIBITS SECRETION OF GASTRIC
JUICE

• CHOLESTOKININ STIMULATES GALL

BLADDER TO SECREATE BILE

PANCREATIC JUICE IS ALKALINE DUE TO

NaHCO3 TO ENABLE ITS ENZYMES TO
WORK
 Pancreas
• AN ORGAN WHICH SECRETES DIGESTIVE
ENZYMES (EXOCRINE) AND HORMONES
(ENDOCRINE)
• PANCREATIC JUICE CONTAINS
ENZYMES;
AMYLASE - STARCH TO MALTOSE
LIPASE – CONVERTS LIPIDS TO FATTY
ACID AND GLYCEROL
TRYPSIN – CONV PROTEINS TO PEPTIDE
CHEMOTRYPSIN – PROTEINS TO
PEPTIDES
 LIVER
• PRODUCES BILE

• BILE EMULSIFIES FATS.

• IT IS A BITTER, GREENISH-YELLOW
ALKALINE FLUID,
• STORED IN THE GALLBLADDER
DISCHARGED INTO THE DUODENUM
WHERE IT AIDS THE PROCESS OF
DIGESTION.
 LIVER
• BILE CONTAINS SALTS LIKE;
SODIUM GLYCOCHOLATE C26H42NNaO6
SODIUM TAUROCHOLATE C26H44NNaO7S

THE SALTS EMULSIFY FATS

 DIGESTION IN ILLEUM 1
•SECOND PORTION OF
SMALL INTESTINE.
•HAS TWO FUNCTIONS;
CHEMICAL DIGESTION
ABSORPTION
 DIGESTION IN ILLEUM 1

CHEMICAL DIGESTION; WHERE

CHEM DIGESTION IS
COMPLETED

ENZYMES RESPONSIBLE ARE IN

THE INTESTINAL JUICE OR
SUCCUS ENTERICUS
 DIGESTION IN ILLEUM 2
THE INTESTINAL JUICE OR
SUCCUS ENTERICUS ARE
SECREATED FROM GLANDS
IN WALLS OF CRYPT OF
LIEBAKUHN.
 DIGESTION IN ILLEUM 2

THERE ARE ALSO BRUNNER’S

GLANDS SECRETING MUCUS
RICH ALKALINE FLUID.

SECREATIONS ARE
STIMULATED BY ARRIVAL OF
CHYME.
INTESTINAL JUICE CONTAINS FIVE MAIN
ENZYMES BELOW;
LIPASE – BREAKS LIPIDS TO FATTY
ACIDS AND GLYCEROLS

MALTASE – BREAKS MALTOSE TO

GLUCOSE

SUCRASE OR INVERTASE –
BREAKS SUCROSE INTO FRUCTOSE AND
GLUCOSE
 DIGESTION IN ILLEUM 4

PEPTIDASE – BREAKS
PEPTIDES TO AMINO ACIDS

LACTASE – BREAKS
LACTOSE TO GALACTOSE AND
GLUCOSE
 DIGESTION IN ILLEUM 5
WALLS OF ILLEUM HAVE
GOBLET CELLS SECRETING
MUCUS
THE MUCUS;
•LUBRICATES FOOD

•PROTECT SELF DIGESTION OF

ILLEUM
 DIGESTION IN ILLEUM 5

RESULTING EMULSION IS
CALLED CHYLE
CONTAINING DIGESTIVE
PRODUCTS
FOLLOWING IS
ABSORPTION.
 ABSORPTION
GLUCOSE, FRUCTOSE,
GALACTOSE AND AMINO
ACIDS ARE ABSORBED BY
DIFFUSION AND ACTIVE
TRANSPORT INTO BLOOD
CAPILLARIES.
 ABSORPTION

THE CAPILLARIES MERGE

FORMING HEPATIC PORTAL
VEIN TRANSPORTING THE
NUTRIENTS TO LIVER.

FATTY ACIDS AND GLYCEROL

ARE ABSORBED INTO
EPITHELIAL CELLS OF LACTEALS
 ABSORPTION 2
LACTEALS MERGE INTO
LYMPH VESSLES THAT
TRANSPORT LIPIDS TO THE
BODY.

THE OIL GIVE THE LACTEALS

A MILKY APPEARANCE
HENCE NAME LACTEALS.
 ABSORPTION 2

SUBSTANCES LIKE WATER,

ALCOHOL, SOLUBLE
VITAMIN B AND C, SALTS
AND SOME MEDICINES ARE
ABSORBED INTO STOMACH
AND DUODENAL WALLS.
 ABSORPTION 3

SUBSTANCES NOT
ABSORBED ARE PASSED ON
TO THE LARGE INTESTINE
OR THE COLON.
 ADAPTATIONS OF ILLEUM 1
• LONG ABOUT 6M PROVIDING
LARGE SURFACE AREA FOR
DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION

• NARROW BRINGING DIGESTED

FOOD CLOSE TO THE WALLS
FOR FASTER DIGESTION AND
ABSORPTION
 ADAPTATIONS OF ILLEUM 1

• HIGHLY COILED;
SLOWS DOWN FOOD
MOVEMENT TO ALLOW MORE
TIME FOR DIGESTION
INCREASE SURFACE AREA
FOR ABSORPTION
 ADAPTATIONS OF ILLEUM 2
•THIN EPITHELIUM FOR
FASTER ABSORPTION OF
MATERIALS

•DENSE CAPILLARIES FOR

ABSORPTION AND
TRANSPORT OF
ABSORBED FOOD
 ADAPTATIONS OF ILLEUM 2

•HAS LACTEALS FOR THE

ABSORPTION OF FATTY
ACIS AND GLYCEROL

•NUMEROUS VILLI AND

MICRO-VILLI FOR
ABSORPTION OF
MATERIALS.
 ROLE OF THE COLON 1
•ABSORBS WATER FROM
UNDIGESTED AND
INDIGESTIBLE MATTER.
•THE INDIGESTIBLE
MATTER ARE
DEAD BACTERIA
 ROLE OF THE COLON 1
DEAD CELLS
ROUGHAGES
MUCUS
THESE CONTRIBUTE TO A
SEMI SOLID MATTER
CALLED FAECES.
 ROLE OF THE COLON 2
EPITHELIAL CELLS
SECREATE MUCUS THAT
LUBRICATE SOLIDIFYING
FAECES FOR EASIER
MOVEMENT.
 ROLE OF THE COLON 2
LIVING IN LARGE INTESTINE
ARE BACTERIA I.E
E. COLI – PRODUCING VITAMIN
K AND B1 B2 B12

THEY GENERATE METHANE

AND HYDROGEN SULPHIDE
GAS AS BI-PRODUCT
 CAECUM AND APPENDIX
•THEY HAVE NO
FUNCTION IN HUMANS.
•IN HERBIVORES I.E
RODENTS IT IS WELL
DEVELOPED
 CAECUM AND APPENDIX

•IT HAS SYMBIOTIC

BACTERIA SECREATING
CELLULASE WHICH DIGEST
CELLULOSE TO GLUCOSE.

•IN RUMINANTS ITS FOUND

IN THE RUMEN.
 RECTUM

•FAECES TEMPORARILY
STORED BEFORE

REMOVAL BY EGESTION
OR DEFECATION.
 ASSIMILATION 1
• THIS IS THE INCORPORATION
OF THE PRODUCTS OF
DIGESTION INTO CELL
• PRODUCTS ASSIMILATED ARE;

•GLUCOSE – TRANSPORTED
TO THE LIVER WHERE EXCESS
CONVERTED TO GLYCOGEN
AND STORED
 ASSIMILATION 1
SOME IS CIRCULATED ON
BODY CELLS AND
OXIDISED DURING
RESPIRATION
EXCESS IS CONVERTED
TO FATS AND STORED
UNDER THE SKIN OR
AROUND THE ORGANS
 ASSIMILATION 2
•AMINO ACIDS – USED IN
THE SYNTHESIS OF PROTEINS.

EXCESS ARE DEAMINATED IN

THE LIVER AND USED TO
PROVIDE ENERGY.

THE AMINO GROUP IS

CONVERTED TO AMMONIA GAS
 ASSIMILATION 3
• FATTY ACID AND GLYCEROL – THEY
ARE OXIDISED TO PROVIDE ENERGY;

THEY COMBINE TO FORM BODY FATS

THE FATS FORMS ADIPOSE TISSUE

WHICH ACTS AS HEAT INSULATOR AND
SHOCK ABSORBER

THEY ARE USED TO SYNTHESIZE

PHOSPHOLIPIDS MAKING UP THE CELL
MEMBRANE
 ROLES OF WATER IN BODY
• FACILLITATES CHEMICAL DIGESTION
BY HYDROLYSIS REACTIONS

• FACILLITATES MECHANICAL
DIGESTION BY SOFTENING FOOD

• PROVIDE A MEDIUM BIOCHEMICAL

PROCESS TAKES PLACE.

• ACTS AS A TRANSPORT MEDIUM

• ACTS AS A COOLANT
 ROLES OF ROUGHAGE
• ADDS BULK TO THE FOOD
PROMOTING PERISTALYSIS. THIS
PREVENTS CONSTIPATION

• ABSORBS TOXINS IN BODY WHICH

ARE THEN EGESTED
 VITAMINS 1
• VITAMIN IS AN ORGANIC NUTRIENT
REQUIRED BY AN ORGANISM IN SMALL
AMOUNTS.
• THEY ARE NOT STORED AND MUST BE
INCLUDED IN THE DIET.

• VITAMINS B AND C ARE SOLUBLE IN

WATER, THE REST ARE SOLUBLE IN
FAT.

• VARIOUS VITAMINS ARE USED IN

DIFFERENT WAYS.
IMPORTANCE OF VITAMINS 2

• VITAMIN A – LIVER, EGG YOLK,

CARROTS, SPINACH, MILK
SYNTHESIZE RHODOPSIN GROWTH
CONTROL GROWTH OF EPITHELIUM

• DEFICIENCY LEADS TO
HARDENING CONES OF THE EYE.
POOR NIGHT VISION
POOR RESISTANCE TO DISEASE
IMPORTANCE OF VITAMINS 2

• VITAMIN A – LIVER, EGG YOLK,

CARROTS, SPINACH, MILK
SYNTHESIZE RHODOPSIN GROWTH
CONTROL GROWTH OF EPITHELIUM

• DEFICIENCY LEADS TO
HARDENING CONES OF THE EYE.
POOR NIGHT VISION
POOR RESISTANCE TO DISEASE
 IMPORTANCE OF VITAMINS 3
• VITAMIN B – YEAST, WHOLE GRAIN,
LIVER, KIDNEY, BEANS, MEAT, SPINACH

• USED IN FORMATION OF ENZYME

CARBOXYLASE FOR CONVERTING
PYRUVIC ACID IN RESPIRATION

• DEFICIENCY LEADS TO BERI BERI,

SLOW HEART BEAT AND INTESTINAL
DISORDER
ETC.. THE TABLE WILL BE
 FACTORS DETERMINING ENERGY
REQUIREMENTS IN HUMANS
• AGE – YOUNG CHILDREN HAVE MANY ACTIVE
DIVIDING CELLS HENCE HAVE A HIGHER BMR.
THEY ARE ALSO PHYSICALLY ACTIVE

• GENDER – MALES ARE MUSCULAR AND ACTIVE

THAN FEMALES HENCE REQUIRE MORE ENERGY

• STATE OF HEALTH – SICK PEOPLE REQUIRE MORE

ENERGY TO HELP REMOVE TOXINS FROM THE
PATHOGENS OFF THEIR BODIES, AND ALSO
MANUFACTURE NEW CELLS FROM ALREADY
DESTROYED

• OCCUPATION – MANUAL WORK NEEDS MORE

ENERGY
 BALANCED DIET 1
• DIET COMPRISING ALL TYPES OF
FOOD IN THE RIGHT PROPORTIONS.

• IT CONSTITUTES PROTEINS,
VITAMINS, LIPIDS,
CARBOHYDRATES, MINERAL SALTS,
WATER AND ROUGHAGE

• THERE ARE DISEASES THAT COME

FROM LACK OF BALANCED DIET;
• EXAMPLE; #TABLE#
 BALANCED DIET 2
• KWASHIAKOR – IN CHILDREN
CAUSED BY LACK OF PROTEIN IN DIET
• SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS –
SWOLLEN BELLY,
SCALY SKIN WITH RASHES,
WASTING OF MUSCLES IN LIMBS
AND AROUND NECK,
HAIR LOSS,
ANAEMIA
MENTAL RETARDATION
 BALANCED DIET 3

• TREATMENT – GIVE
SUFFICIENT PROTEINS AND
VITAMINS IF AVAILABLE.
 BALANCED DIET 4
• MARASMUS – CAUSED BY
STARVATION EXCPECIALLY IN
CHILDREN.
• SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS –
SWOLLEN BODY
SKINNY
LARGE HEAD
DIARRHOEA
ANAEMIA
MENTAL RETARDATION
 BALANCED DIET 5

•TREATMENT – GIVE
SUFFICIENT FOOD AND
BALANCED DIET.
 BALANCED DIET 6
• CONSTIPATION – LOW
ROUGHAGE IN THE BODY

• SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS –

RETENTION OF WASTE AND
FAECES IN THE BODY

DISORDERS IN INTESTINES
(ACHES)
 BALANCED DIET 7

•TREATMENT – EAT ENOUGH

ROUGHAGE

• VEGETABLES, FRUITS AND

GRAINS
 BALANCED DIET 8
• OBESITY – THIS IS TAKING IN TOO MUCH FAT
AND CARBOHYDRATE IN DIET

• ALSO CAUSED BY LACK OF PHYSICAL EXERCISE

LEADING TO ACCUMULATION OF FATS IN THE
BODY

• SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS –

THE PERSON RISK HAVING HIGH BLOOD
PRESSURE

PERSON DISPLAYS LAZINESS FOR OR IN

EXERCISE

MAY DEVELOP HEART DISEASE

 BALANCED DIET 9

•TREATMENT – EAT FOOD LESS

OF FATS AND
CARBOHYDRATES

DO PHYSICAL EXERCISE