Development of the Learners at the

Various Stages
 Pre-natal Development

• Three (3) periods – germinal,

embryonic and fetal.
 GERMINAL PERIOD
• 24 to 30 hours after fertilization – the male (sperm) and the female (egg)
chromosomes unite;
• 36 hours – the fertilized ovum, zygote, divides into two (2) 2 cells;
• 48 hours (2days) – 2 cells become 4 cells;
• 72 hours (3days) – 4 cells become a small compact ball of 16-32 cells;
• 96 hours (4days) – hallow ball of 64-128 cells;
• 4-5 days – inner cell mass (blastocyst) still free in the uterus;
• 6-7 days – blastocyst attaches to the wall of uterus;
• 11-15 days - blastocyst invades into uterine wall and becomes implanted in it
(implantation).
 EMBRYONIC PERIOD
• (2-8 weeks after conception)
• Cell differentiation intensifies;

• Life-support systems for the embryo develop; and

• Organs appear
 FETAL PERIOD
• 3 months after conception: fetus is about 3 inches long and weighs about
1 ounce, fetus has become active, moves its arms and legs, opens and
closes its mouth and moves its head; the face, forehead, eyelids, nose, chin
can now be distinguished and also the upper arms, lower arms, hands, and
lower limb; the genitals can now be identified as male or female.
• 4 months after conception: fetus is about 6 inches long and weighs 4 to 7
ounces; growth spurt occurs in the body’s lower parts; pre-natal reflexes
are stronger; mother feels arm and leg movements for the first time.
• 5 moths after conception: fetus is about 12 inches long; weighs close to a
pound; structure of the skin (fingernails and toenails) have formed; fetus is
more active.
 FETAL PERIOD
• 6 moths after conception: fetus is about 14 inches long
and weighs one and half pound; eyes and eyelids are
completely formed; fine layer of head covers the head;
grasping reflex is present and irregular movements occur.
• 7 months after conception: fetus is about 16 inches
long and weighs 3 pounds.
• 8 to 9 months after conception: fetus grows longer and
gains substantial weight, about 4 pounds
 Teratology and Hazards to
Prenatal Development
• Prescription and nonprescription drugs: these include prescription as well as non-
prescription drugs. Antibiotic is an example of prescription drug that can be harmful.
• Psychoactive drugs: these include nicotine, caffeine and illegal drugs such as marijuana,
cocaine and heroin. Researches found that pregnant women who drunk more caffeinated
coffee were likely to have preterm deliveries and newborns with lower birthweight
compared to their counterparts who did not drink caffeinated coffee (Eskanazi, et.al, 1999
quoted by Santrock 2002).Heavy drinking by pregnant women results to the so called
“fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)” which is a cluster of abnormalities that appears in the
children of mothers who drinks alcohol heavily during pregnancy.
• Environmental hazards: this include radiation in jobsites and x-rays, environmental
pollutants, toxic wastes and prolonged exposure to heat in saunas and bath tubs.
 Teratology and Hazards to
Prenatal Development
• Other maternal factors such as Rubella (German Measles), syphilis, genital horpes,
AIDS, nutrition, high anxiety and stress, age (too early or too late, beyond 30). Rubella
in 1964-1965 resulted in 30,000 pre-natal and neonatal deaths and more that 20,000 affected
infants who were born with malformation, including mental retardation, blindness, deafness
and heart problems (Santrock, 2002). Syphilis damages organs after they have formed.
These damages include eye lesions, which can cause blindness and skin lesions. When
syphilis is present at birth, other problems involving the central nervous system and
gastrointestinal tract can develop. Folic Acid is necessary for pregnant mothers. Folic acid
can reduce the risk of having a baby with a serious birth defect of the brain and spinal cord,
called “neural tube”. A baby with “spinal bifda” the most cost common neural tube defect
is born with a spine that is not closed.
• Paternal factors: fathers’ exposure to lead, radiation, certain pesticides and petrochemicals
may cause abnormalities in sperm that lead to miscarriage or diseases such as a childhood
cancer.
Physical Development of Infants and Toddlers

• The cephalocaudal trend is the postnatal growth from

conception to 5 months when the head grows more than
the body. These cephalocaudal trends of growth that
applies to the development of the fetus also applies in the
first months after birth. Infants learn to use their upper
limbs before their lower limb. The same patter occurs in
the head area because the top parts of the head – the eyes
and the brain – grow faster than the lower parts such as
the jaw.
Physical Development of Infants and Toddlers

• The proximodistal trend is the pre-natal growth

form 5 months to birth when the fetus grows from the
inside of the body outwards. This also applies in the first
months after birth as shown in the earlier maturation of
muscular control of the truck and arms, followed by that
of the hands and fingers. When referring to motor
development, the proximodistal trends to the development
of motor skills from the center of the body outward.
 Height and Weight
• It’s normal for newborn babies to drop 5 to 10 percent of their body weight within a
couple of weeks of birth. That is due to the baby’s adjustment to neonatal feeding.
Once they adjust to sucking, swallowing and digesting, they grow rapidly.
• Breastfed babies are typically heavier than bottle-fed babies through the first six
months. After six months, breastfed babies usually weigh less than bottle-fed babies.
• In general, an infant’s length increases by about 30 percent in the first five months.
• A baby’s weight usually triples during the first year but slows down in the second year
of life.
• Low percentages are not a cause for alarm as long as infants progress along a natural
curve of steady development.
 Brain Development

• Among the most dramatic changes in the brain in the first

two years of life are the spreading connections of
dendrites to each other. Remember neurons, dendrites,
axon, synapses? Myelination or Myelinization: the
process by which the axons are covered and insulated by
layers of aft cells, begins prenatally and continues after
birth. The process of myelination increases the speed at
which information travels through the nervous system.
• At birth, the newborn’s brain is about 25% of its adult
weight. By the second birthday, the brain is about 75% of
its adult weight.
 Motor Development

• Along this aspect of motor development, infants and

toddlers begin from reflexes, to gross motor skills and fine
motor skills.
 Reflexes

Some of the most common reflexes that babies have are:

• Sucking reflex: sucking reflex is initiated when something touches the roof of an infant’s
mouth. Infants have s strong sucking reflex which helps to ensure they can latch onto a
bottle or breast. The sucking reflex is a very strong in some infants and they may need to
suck on a pacifier for comfort.
• Rooting reflex: the rooting reflex is most evident when an infant’s cheek is stroked. The
baby responds by turning his or her head in the direction of the touch and opening their
mouth for feeding.
• Gripping reflex: babies will grasp anything that is placed in their palm. The strength of
this grip is strong and most babies can support their entire weight in the grip.
• Curling reflex: when the inner sole of a baby’s foot is stroked, the infant responds by
curling his or her toes. When the outer sole of a baby’s foot is stroked, the infant will
respond by
 Reflexes

• Startle/Moro reflex: infants will respond to sudden sounds or

movements by throwing their arms and legs out, and throwing their
heads back. Most infants will usually cry when startled and proceed to
pull their limbs back into their bodies.
• Galant reflex: the Galant reflex is shown when an infant’s middle or
lower back is stroked next to the spinal cord. The baby will respond by
curving his or her body toward the side which is being stroked.
• Tonic Neck reflex: the tonic neck reflex is demonstrated in infants who
are placed on their abdomens. Whichever side the child’s head is facing,
the limbs on that side will straighten while the opposite limbs will curl.
 Gross Motor Skills

• It is always a source of excitement for parents to witness

dramatic changes in the infant’s first year of life. This
dramatic motor development is shown in babies unable to
even lift their heads to being able to grab things off the
cabinet, to chase the ball and to walk from parent.
 Fine Motor Skills

• Fine motor skills, are skills that involve a refined use of the small
muscles controlling the hand, fingers, and thumb. The development
of these skills allows one to be able to complete tasks such as
writing, drawing and buttoning.
• The ability to exhibit fine motor skills involve activities that involve
precise eye-hand coordination. The development of reaching and
grasping becomes more refined during the first two years of life.
Initially, infants show only crude and elbow movement, but later they
show wrist movements, hand rotation and coordination of all body
parts.
FACILITATING LEARNER-
CENTERED TEACHING
Abinal, Krys Jim
Beatriz, Christian M.
Kho, Marie Adeline
Layderos, Ricky
Magistrado, Cherylen B.
Maaño, France Dennizzy A.
Orcine, Jonathan
Sabater, Kristel Anne
Sena, Sarah Mae T.
CHAPTER 1: METACOGNITION
-
• Definition of metacognition
• Characteristics of metacognition
• Metacognitive knowledge and regulation
• Levels of metacognitive learners
• Misconceptions about metacognition
• Strategies and examples on how to use fostering
metacognition in the classroom
 LEARNER-CENTERED
PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES –
• Learner-Centered psychological principles
• Cognitive and metacognitive factors
• Motivational and affective factors
• Developmental social factors
• Individual differences factors
 CHAPTER 3: THEORIES RELATED
TO THE LEARNERS’ DEVELOPMENT
• Subsumption learning theories
• Cognitive dissonance learning theory
• Levels of consciousness
• Hierarchy of needs
• Information processing theory
• Gestalt learning theory
• Experiential learning theory
• Personal construct theory
• Behaviorist perspectives
• The Constructivist theory
 CHAPTER 4: STUDENT DIVERSITY -

• The multiple intelligent learners

• Addressing multiple intelligences in the classroom
• The VARK Model of student learning styles
• Teaching strategies for visual learners
• Teaching strategies for aural learners
• Teaching strategies for reader and writer learners
• Teaching strategies for kinesthetic learners
 REFERENCES
• Gestwicki, C. (2016). Home school and community relations (9th ed.). Australia: Cengage
Learning.
• Johns, B.H. (2015). 15 Positive behavior strategies to increase academic success.
California: Corwin.
• Lavigne, A.L. and Good, T. L. (2015). Improving teaching through observation and
feedback. New York: Routledge.
• Lucas, M.R., and Corpuz, B. (2014). Facilitating learning: A metacognitive process (4th
ed.). Metro Manila: Lorimar Publishing Inc.
• Schwarts, D., Tsang, J.M., & Blair, K.P. (2016). The ABCs of how we learn. New York: W.W.
Norton &Company.
• Weinstein, C. S. and Novodvorsky, I. (2015). Middle and secondary classroom
management. New York: McGraw-Hill.