MODULE –2: Elementary

Cryptography
🠶Number theory fundamentals
🠶Principles of public key crypto
systems
🠶RSA algorithm
🠶Diffi e Hellman Key exchange
Need of public key cryptography
🠶 To address 2 key issues
🠶 1. Key distribution
🠶 How to have secure communications in general
without having to trust a KDC with your key
🠶 2. Digital signature
🠶 How to verify a message comes intact from the
claimed sender
Principles of public key crypto
systems
 public-key/two-key/asymmetric cryptography involves the
use of two keys:

a public-key, which may be known by anybody, and
can be
used to encrypt messages, and verify signatures

a related private-key,known only to the recipient,
used to decrypt messages, and sign (create)
signatures
 Infeasible to determine private key from public
 Asymmetric because

those who encrypt messages or verify signatures cannot
decrypt messages or create signatures
Public key crypto
systems
🠶 A public-key encryption scheme has 6
ingredients
🠶 Plaintext: This is the readable message or data
that is fed
into the algorithm as input.
🠶 Encryption algorithm: The encryption algorithm
performs various transformations on the
plaintext.
🠶 Public and private keys: This is a pair of keys
that have been selected so that if one is used
for encryption, the other is used for decryption.
Public key crypto systems

🠶 Exact transformations performed by the

algorithm depend on public or private key
that is provided as input.
🠶 Ciphertext: This is the encrypted message
produced as output. It depends on the plaintext
and the key.
🠶 For a given message, two different keys will
produce two different ciphertexts.
🠶 Decryption algorithm: This algorithm accepts
ciphertext and matching key and produces
original plaintext.
Symmetr VS Public
ic key
Public key Cryptography
Public key crypto systems
🠶 The essential steps are the following.
🠶 1. Each user generates a pair of keys for
encryption and decryption of messages.
🠶 2. Each user places one of the 2 keys in a
public register or other accessible file. This is
public key. The companion key is kept private.
🠶 3. If Bob wishes to send a confidential message
to Alice, Bob encrypts the message using Alice’s
public key.
Public key crypto
systems
🠶 When Alice receives the message, she decrypts
it using her private key. No other recipient
can decrypt the message because only Alice
knows Alice’s private key.
🠶 With this approach, all participants have
access to public keys, and private keys are
generated locally by each participant and
therefore need never be distributed.
🠶 As long as a user’s private key remains
protected and secret, incoming communication
is secure. At any time, a system can change
its private key and publish the companion
public key to replace its old public key.
Public key cryptosystem :
Confidentiality
Public key cryptosystem :
Confidentiality
🠶 There is some source A that produces a message in plaintext, X = [X , 1
X2, …, XM].
🠶 The M elements of X are letters in some finite alphabet.
🠶 The message is intended for destination B.
🠶 B generates a related pair of keys: a public key, PUb, and a private
key, PRb .
🠶 PRb is known only to B, whereas PUb
is publicly available and therefore accessible by
A.
🠶 With message X and the encryption key PUb as input,
🠶 A forms the ciphertext Y = [Y1, Y2, …, YN]:
🠶 Y = E(PRb , X)
🠶 The intended receiver, in possession of the matching private key,
is able to invert the transformation:
🠶 X = D(PRb ,Y)
Public key cryptosystem :
Authentication
Public key cryptosystem :
Authentication
🠶 Here, A prepares a message to B and encrypts
it using A’s private key before transmitting it.
🠶 B can decrypt the message using A’s public key.
🠶 As the message was encrypted using A’s
private key, only A could have prepared the
message.
🠶 Entire encrypted message serves as a digital
signature.
🠶 In addition, it is impossible to alter the message
without access to A’s private key, so the
message is authenticated both in terms of
source and in terms of data integrity.
Public key cryptosystem :
Authentication and Secrecy
Public key cryptosystem :
Authentication and Secrecy
🠶 It is possible to provide both the authentication
function and confidentiality by a double use of the
public-key scheme (Figure below):
🠶 Z = E(PUb , E(PRa,X)) and X = D(PUa, D(PRb,Z))
🠶 Here we begin by encrypting a message, using the
sender’s private
key and this provides digital signature.
🠶 Next, we encrypt again, using the receiver’s public key.
🠶 The final ciphertext can be decrypted only by intended
receiver,
who alone has the matching private key.
🠶 Thus, confidentiality is provided.
Applications for Public-Key
Cryptosystems
🠶Public-key systems are
characterized by cryptographic
algorithms with 2 keys, one is private
and one is public.
🠶Depending on the application, the
sender uses either the sender’s private
key or receiver’s public key, or both,
to perform some type of cryptographic
function.
Applications for Public-Key
Cryptosystems
🠶 We can use 3 kinds of public-key cryptosystems.
🠶 Encryption/decryption: The sender encrypts a message
with the recipient’s public key, and recipient
decrypts message with recipient’s private key.
🠶 Digital signature: Sender “signs” a message with its
private key. Signing is done by a cryptographic algorithm
applied to message or to a small block of data that is a
function of the message.
🠶 Key exchange: 2 sides cooperate to exchange a session
key, which is a secret key for symmetric encryption
generated for use for a transaction (or session) and valid
for a short period of time.
🠶 Some algorithms are suitable for all three applications,
whereas others can be used only for one or two of these
applications.
Applications for Public-Key
Cryptosystems
RSA
algorithm
🠶 RSA (Rivest Shamir Adleman) is an
algorithm used to encrypt and decrypt
messages.
🠶 This algorithm was developed in 1977.
🠶 It is an asymmetric cryptographic algorithm .
🠶 This is also called public key cryptography
because one of the keys can be given to
anyone.
RSA
algorithm
RSA
algorithm
Example

🠶 User A wants to send a number 4 to User B

🠶 Select two prime numbers p = 3, q = 11
🠶 n = p * q = 3 * 11 = 33
🠶 ø(n) = 2 * 10 = 20
🠶 Public key generation
🠶 Select a number e such that e is 1 < ø(n) and
gcd(e, ø(n)) = 1
🠶 Let e = 13, such that gcd(13,20) = 1
🠶 The public key is {e,n} = {13,33}
Exampl
e
🠶 Private key generation
🠶 Find a number d such 1 = 7 -1 * 6
that e * d mod ø(n) = = 7 – 1(13 -1*7)
1 = 2 * 7 -1 * 13
🠶 d is modular = 2 (20 -1*13) -1
multiplicative inverse *13
🠶 13d mod 20 = 1 = 2 * 20 -3 *13
🠶 20 = 1* 13 + 7 = -3 + 20 = 17
🠶 13 = 1 *7 + 6 Private key =
{17,33}
🠶7=1*6+1
🠶
Example

🠶 User A know the public key

{13,33}
🠶
🠶 Important
Cipher textp=< n mod
ie 4 < 33
413 33
🠶 (43)4 * 4 mod
33
🠶 (31)4 * 4 mod
33
🠶
🠶 User
(-2)4 *A 4sends
mod cipher text 31 to
User
33 B
🠶 64 mod 33 =
31
Example
🠶 User B decrypt the message using private key
{ 17,33}
🠶 Plaintext = 31 17 mod 33
🠶 ((-2) 5)3 * 22 mod 33
🠶 -((2) 5)3 * 22 mod 33
🠶 -(-1)3 * 22 mod 33
🠶4
Exercise
s
🠶 Perform the encryption and decryption
using RSA algorithm for the following data
🠶 1. p = 3 q = 11 e = 7 m = 5
🠶 2. p = 5 q = 11 e = 3m = 9
🠶 3. p = 7 q = 11 e = 17 m = 8
🠶 4. p = 11 q = 13 e = 11 m = 7
🠶 5. p = 17 q = 31 e = 7 m = 2
 Euler's theorem
• Euler's theorem, we need to introduce an important
quantity in number theory, referred to as Euler's
Totient function and written
• Euler's Totient function - φ(n),
• φ(n) is defined as the number of positive integers less
than n and relatively prime to n.
• By convention, φ(1) = 1.
• Ex: Determine φ(37) and φ(35)

01/28/2025 27
 Determine φ(37) and φ(35)
Because 37 is prime, all of the positive integers
from 1 through 36 are relatively prime to 37.
Thus φ(37) = 36.
To determine φ(35),
List all of the positive integers less than 35 that
are relatively prime to it:
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 16, 17, 18, 19, 22, 23,
24, 26, 27, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34.
There are 24 numbers on the list, so φ(35) =
24.

01/28/2025 28
 Euler’s Totient Function

(1) If n is a prime number ,

φ(n) = n-1
(2) If n = p x q , where p and q are prime
numbers
φ(n) = (p-1) x (q -1)
(3) n = a x b , where a or b is composite or both
a and b is composite
φ(n) = n ( 1- ) ( 1- ) .. … ( 1- )
Where p are distinct prime numbers
01/28/2025 29
 Ex 2 φ(n) = (p-1) x (q -1)
When n = 21 ,what is φ(n)

To see that φ(n) = (p-1) (q-1)

= φ(3) x φ(7)

= (3- 1) x (7- 1) = 2 x 6 = 12

where the 12 integers are

{1,2,4,5,8,10,11,13,16,17,19,20}

01/28/2025 30
 Ctd.. EX 2
When n = 35 ,Find φ(35)
To see that φ(n) = (p-1) (q-1)

35 = 5 x 7 : 5,7 both are prime numbers

= (5- 1) x (7- 1) = 4 x 6 = 24

where the 24 integers are relatively prime to 35

{1,2,3,4,6,8,9,11,12,13,16,17,18,19,22,23,24,26,2
7,29,31,32,33,34}

01/28/2025 31
 EX 3 : φ(n) = n ( 1- ) ( 1- ) .. … ( 1- )

Find : φ(1000)
Here n = 1000
So n = 23 x 53 which is ( 8 x 125) = 1000
Both
2 and 5 are prime no's so
: φ(n) = n ( 1- ) ( 1- )
: φ(1000) = 1000 ( 1- ) ( 1- ) = 1000 ( ) ( )
φ(1000) = 400

01/28/2025 32
 CtdFind : φ(7000)
Here n = 7000
So n = 23 x 53 x 71 which is ( 8 x 125 x 7) = 7000
Both
2 and 5 are prime no's so
: φ(n) = n ( 1- ) ( 1- ) ( 1- )
: φ(1000) = 1000 ( 1- ) ( 1- ) ( 1- ) = 1000 ( ) ( ) ( )

φ(1000) = 2400

01/28/2025 33
 From a negative integer, it is not possible to
calculate the Euler’s Totient Function.

The principle, in this case, is that for ϕ(n), the

multiplicators called m and n should be greater
than 1.

Hence denoted by 1<m<n and gcd (m, n) = 1. Sign

ϕ is the sign used

01/28/2025 34