FUEL CELL

• A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that converts the chemical

energy of a fuel, typically hydrogen, and an oxidizing agent, typically
oxygen from the air, into electrical energy.
• Fuel cells offer a clean and efficient method of generating electricity,
with water as the only byproduct.
 Working Principle of a Fuel Cell
• The working principle of a fuel cell involves several key components and
processes:
• Electrolyte: A fuel cell contains an electrolyte, which is a conductive material
that allows the movement of ions. The electrolyte can be either solid or
liquid, depending on the type of fuel cell.
• Anode: The anode is the electrode where the fuel, such as hydrogen, is
supplied. At the anode, the fuel is typically split into protons (H+) and
electrons (e-).
• Cathode: The cathode is the electrode where the oxidizing agent, usually
oxygen from the air, is supplied. Oxygen combines with the protons and
electrons to form water (H2O) or other byproducts, depending on the type
of fuel cell.
 Working Principle of a Fuel Cell
• Catalyst: The anode and cathode contain catalysts that facilitate the
electrochemical reactions. The catalysts help in the dissociation of fuel
molecules and promote the recombination of ions and electrons.
• Ion Exchange: The electrolyte allows the movement of ions between the
anode and cathode. Protons generated at the anode migrate through the
electrolyte to reach the cathode.
• Electrochemical Reactions: At the anode, hydrogen fuel is split into
protons and electrons. The protons pass through the electrolyte, while
the electrons are forced to travel through an external circuit, creating an
electrical current that can be utilized for various applications. At the
cathode, the protons and electrons combine with oxygen to form water
or other reaction byproducts.
 Different Types of Fuel Cells
• Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC): PEMFCs use a solid
polymer electrolyte membrane that allows only protons to pass through.
operate at relatively low temperatures (typically below 100°C) and are
compact, making them suitable for applications like transportation and
portable devices.

• Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC): SOFCs use a solid ceramic electrolyte and
operate at high temperatures (typically above 500°C). They can utilize a
variety of fuels and offer high efficiency. SOFCs are commonly used in
stationary power generation applications.
• Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC): MCFCs use a molten carbonate salt as
the electrolyte. They operate at high temperatures (around 600-700°C)
and can utilize a variety of fuels, including hydrogen, natural gas, and
biogas. MCFCs are primarily used for stationary power generation.
 Different Types of Fuel Cells
• Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC): AFCs use an alkaline electrolyte, typically potassium
hydroxide (KOH) solution. They operate at relatively low temperatures (around
60-80°C) and have high efficiency. AFCs have been widely used in space
applications.

• Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC): PAFCs use phosphoric acid as the electrolyte.
They operate at temperatures around 150-200°C and are commonly used for
stationary power generation, such as in buildings and industrial settings.

• Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC): DMFCs use methanol as the fuel instead of
hydrogen. They are typically low-temperature devices and find applications in
portable power systems.
 Alkaline Fuel Cell

• AFCs uses an alkaline electrolyte, typically potassium hydroxide (KOH)

solution, to facilitate the electrochemical reactions.

• AFCs have been around for several decades and have been used in
various applications, including space exploration and early submarine
propulsion systems.
 working of an Alkaline Fuel Cell

• Electrolyte: The AFC contains an alkaline electrolyte, typically a

solution of potassium hydroxide (KOH). The electrolyte allows the
movement of hydroxide ions (OH-) between the anode and cathode.

• Anode: At the anode, hydrogen gas (H2) is supplied. The hydrogen

molecules dissociate into protons (H+) and electrons (e-) in the
presence of a catalyst, typically platinum. The protons migrate
through the electrolyte towards the cathode.
 working of an Alkaline Fuel Cell
• Anode reaction: H2+2OH- → 2H2O + 2e-
• Electron Flow: The electrons produced at the anode travel through an
external circuit to the cathode, creating an electric current that can be
utilized for various applications.
• Cathode: At the cathode, oxygen gas (O2) from the air is supplied. The
electrons flow through an external circuit and return to the cathode,
reducing oxygen in the reaction. The oxygen molecules react with the
H+ ions and electrons from the external circuit to form water (H2O).
• Cathode reaction: O2 +2H2O + 4e- → 4OH-
 working of an Alkaline Fuel Cell
• Overall Reaction: The overall reaction in an AFC can be represented
as:

• 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O

• This reaction results in the production of water as the only byproduct,

making AFCs environmentally friendly.
 Applications of Alkaline Fuel
Cells
• Efficiency: AFCs can achieve high efficiency, making them suitable for various
applications where energy efficiency is crucial.
• Operates at Relatively Low Temperature: AFCs operate at relatively low
temperatures, typically around 60-80°C, which helps in reducing system costs and
enables faster start-up times.
• Space Applications: AFCs have been widely used in space applications due to their
high efficiency, reliability, and ability to operate in microgravity environments.
• Portable Power Systems: AFCs have also found applications in portable power
systems, such as backup power for telecommunication sites or portable
generators, where their compact size and quick start-up are advantageous.
 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell

• A Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC) is a type of fuel cell that uses
phosphoric acid as the electrolyte to facilitate the electrochemical
reactions.
• PAFCs have been extensively studied and commercially deployed for
stationary power generation applications, providing electricity for
buildings, industrial facilities, and other grid-connected systems.
 Working of a Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell

• Electrolyte: The PAFC contains a phosphoric acid electrolyte, typically

in the form of a concentrated solution (about 85% phosphoric acid).
The electrolyte allows the movement of protons (H+) between the
anode and cathode.
• Anode: At the anode, hydrogen gas (H2) is supplied. The hydrogen
molecules dissociate into protons (H+) and electrons (e-) in the
presence of a catalyst, usually platinum. The protons migrate through
the electrolyte towards the cathode.
• Anode reaction: H2 → 2H+ + 2e-
 Working of a Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell

• Cathode: At the cathode, oxygen gas (O2) from the air is supplied. The
oxygen molecules react with the protons and electrons from the
external circuit to form water (H2O).
• Electron Flow: The electrons produced at the anode travel through an
external circuit to the cathode, creating an electric current that can be
utilized for various applications.

• Cathode reaction: 1/2O2 + 2H+ + 2e- → H2O

 Working of a Phosphoric Acid
Fuel Cell
• Phosphoric Acid Electrolyte: The phosphoric acid electrolyte acts as a
medium for the transport of protons between the anode and
cathode, facilitating the overall electrochemical reactions.

• Heat Recovery: PAFCs operate at relatively high temperatures (around

150-200°C). The heat generated during the electrochemical reactions
can be recovered and utilized for cogeneration applications,
improving the overall system efficiency.
Applications of Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells
• Efficiency: PAFCs offer relatively high efficiency, making
them suitable for stationary power generation
applications where energy efficiency is crucial.

• Stationary Power Generation: PAFCs have been widely

used for stationary power generation, providing
electricity for buildings, hospitals, data centers, and other
grid-connected applications. The waste heat generated
by PAFCs can be utilized for combined heat and power
(CHP) systems.
Applications of Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells
• Reliability and Durability: PAFCs have demonstrated
good reliability and long operating life, making them
suitable for continuous power generation applications.

• Fuel Flexibility: PAFCs can utilize hydrogen gas as the

fuel, but they can also operate on reformed
hydrocarbon fuels, such as natural gas, biogas, or
methanol. This fuel flexibility enhances their versatility
in various applications.
Applications of Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells
• Remote and Off-Grid Power: PAFCs can provide power for remote or
off-grid locations, such as remote telecommunication sites, remote
communities, or military bases, where access to reliable electricity is
limited.
 Limitations
• Higher cost and slower start-up times compared to other fuel cell
technologies.
• However, ongoing research and development efforts aim to improve
their performance, durability, and cost-effectiveness for wider
adoption in the future.
 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell

• MCFC is a type of high-temperature fuel cell that uses a molten

carbonate salt as the electrolyte to facilitate the electrochemical
reactions.

• MCFCs operate at temperatures typically around 600-700°C and offer

several advantages, including fuel flexibility and high efficiency.
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell
 Working of a Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell
• Electrolyte: The MCFC contains a molten carbonate salt, typically a
mixture of lithium carbonate (Li2CO3) and potassium carbonate
(K2CO3), as the electrolyte. The electrolyte is in a molten state at the
operating temperature, allowing the movement of carbonate ions
(CO32-) between the anode and cathode.

• Anode: At the anode, a fuel gas is supplied, typically a mixture of

hydrogen (H2) and carbon dioxide (CO2). The fuel gas reacts with the
carbonate ions and the anode catalyst, usually nickel-based, to
produce carbon dioxide ions (CO22-) and electrons (e-).
 Working of a Molten Carbonate
Fuel Cell
• Anode reaction: H2 + CO32- → H2O + CO2 + 2e-
• Cathode: At the cathode, oxygen gas (O2) from the air is supplied. The oxygen molecules
react with the carbon dioxide ions, electrons from the external circuit, and the cathode
catalyst, typically a metal oxide, to form carbonate ions.
• Cathode reaction: 1/2O2 + CO2 + 2e- → CO32-

• Ion Migration: The carbonate ions produced at the cathode migrate through the molten
electrolyte towards the anode, and the electrons generated at the anode travel through
the external circuit to the cathode, creating an electric current.

• Overall Reaction: The overall reaction in an MCFC can be represented as:

• H2 + 1/2O2 + CO32- → H2O + CO2

• This reaction results in the production of water and carbon dioxide as byproducts.
 Key Features and Applications
of Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell
• High Efficiency: This high efficiency makes them suitable for applications
where combined heat and power (CHP) systems are desired.

• Fuel Flexibility: can utilize a variety of fuels, including hydrogen (H2),

natural gas, biogas, and other hydrocarbon fuels. This fuel flexibility
makes them versatile for various applications and enables the utilization
of different fuel sources.

• Carbon Capture: MCFCs integrated with fuel processing systems can

capture and utilize carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from industrial
processes or other sources, contributing to greenhouse gas reduction.
 Key Features and Applications of
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell
Stationary Power Generation: MCFCs are primarily used for stationary
power generation, providing electricity for grid-connected applications
such as commercial buildings, hospitals, and industrial facilities.

Cogeneration: The high-temperature waste heat produced by MCFCs

can be captured and used for combined heat and power (CHP)
applications, improving the overall system efficiency.

Remote Power Generation: MCFCs can provide power for remote or

off-grid locations where access to reliable electricity is limited. Their
fuel flexibility allows for the utilization of different fuel sources,
including locally available resources.
 Limitations

• Requirement for high operating temperatures, longer start-up times,

and material compatibility issues with the corrosive molten
electrolyte.
• Ongoing research and development efforts aim to address these
challenges and improve the performance and durability of MCFC.
 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell
• A Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) is a type of fuel cell that uses a solid
ceramic material as the electrolyte to facilitate the electrochemical
reactions.

• SOFCs operate at high temperatures, typically above 500°C, and offer

several advantages, including high efficiency, fuel flexibility, and
potential for carbon capture.
 Working of a Solid Oxide Fuel Cell
• The working principle of a Solid Oxide Fuel Cell involves the following steps:

• Electrolyte: The SOFC contains a solid ceramic electrolyte, typically made of

materials like yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) or doped ceria. The solid electrolyte
allows the movement of oxygen ions (O2-) between the anode and cathode.

• Anode: At the anode, a fuel gas is supplied, such as hydrogen (H2) or a

hydrocarbon fuel like natural gas. The fuel reacts with the solid electrolyte and
a catalyst, usually nickel-based, to produce oxygen ions (O2-) and electrons (e-).

• Anode reaction: H2 + O2- → H2O + 2e-

 Working of a Solid Oxide Fuel Cell
• Cathode: At the cathode, oxygen gas (O2) from the air is supplied. The oxygen
molecules react with the oxygen ions and the cathode catalyst, typically a
perovskite material, to form oxygen ions.
• Cathode reaction: 1/2O2 + 2e- → O2-

• Ion Migration: The oxygen ions produced at the cathode migrate through the
solid electrolyte towards the anode, and the electrons generated at the anode
travel through the external circuit to the cathode, creating an electric current.

• Overall Reaction: The overall reaction in a Solid Oxide Fuel Cell can be
represented as:

• H2 + 1/2O2 → H2O
 Key Features and Applications of Solid Oxide Fuel Cells:

• High Efficiency: This high efficiency makes them suitable for applications
where combined heat and power (CHP) systems are desired.

• Fuel Flexibility: SOFCs can utilize a variety of fuels, including hydrogen (H2),
natural gas, biogas, and other hydrocarbon fuels. This fuel flexibility makes
them versatile for various applications and enables the utilization of different
fuel sources.

• Carbon Capture: SOFCs integrated with fuel processing systems can capture
and utilize carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from industrial processes or other
sources, contributing to greenhouse gas reduction.
• Stationary Power Generation: SOFCs are primarily used for stationary power generation,
providing electricity for grid-connected applications such as residential and commercial
buildings, hospitals, and industrial facilities.

• Cogeneration: The high-temperature waste heat produced by SOFCs can be captured and
used for combined heat and power (CHP) applications, improving the overall system
efficiency.
• Remote Power Generation: SOFCs can provide power for remote or off-grid locations
where access to reliable electricity is limited. Their fuel flexibility allows for the utilization
of different fuel sources, including locally available resources.

• Military Applications: SOFCs have been explored for military applications, such as portable
power systems for soldiers in the field or power generation for military bases.
• challenges: including the requirement for high operating
temperatures, longer start-up times, and material compatibility issues
with the high-temperature environment. Ongoing research and
development efforts aim to address these challenges and improve the
performance and durability of SOFCs for wider commercial
deployment.
 Solid Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell

• A Solid Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell (PEFC), also known as a Proton

Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell, is a type of fuel cell that uses a solid
polymer membrane as the electrolyte to facilitate the electrochemical
reactions. PEFCs operate at relatively low temperatures, typically
between 60°C and 100°C, and offer several advantages, including fast
start-up times, high power density, and compact size.
• Working Principle of a Solid Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell:
• The working principle of a Solid Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell involves
the following steps:
• Electrolyte: The PEFC contains a solid polymer electrolyte membrane,
typically made of a perfluorosulfonic acid-based polymer such as
Nafion. The membrane allows the transport of protons (H+) between
the anode and cathode.
• Anode: At the anode, hydrogen gas (H2) is supplied. The hydrogen
molecules undergo catalytic dissociation at the anode catalyst, usually
platinum-based, to form protons (H+) and electrons (e-). The protons
migrate through the electrolyte membrane towards the cathode.
• Anode reaction: H2 → 2H+ + 2e-
• Cathode: At the cathode, oxygen gas (O2) from the air is supplied. The oxygen
molecules react with the protons and electrons from the external circuit, as
well as the cathode catalyst, often platinum-based, to form water (H2O).
• Cathode reaction: 1/2O2 + 2H+ + 2e- → H2O
• Ion Migration: The protons produced at the anode migrate through the solid
polymer electrolyte membrane towards the cathode, while the electrons
generated at the anode travel through the external circuit to the cathode,
creating an electric current.
• Overall Reaction: The overall reaction in a Solid Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell
can be represented as:
• H2 + 1/2O2 → H2O
• Key Features and Applications of Solid Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells:
• Fast Start-up: PEFCs can start up quickly due to their low operating temperature,
making them suitable for applications where rapid power generation is required.

• High Power Density: PEFCs offer high power density, meaning they can generate
a significant amount of power per unit volume or weight. This characteristic
makes them suitable for applications where space and weight constraints are
critical, such as automotive and portable devices.

• Compact Size: PEFCs have a compact size and can be manufactured in various
shapes, allowing for flexible integration into different systems and applications.
• Fuel Flexibility: PEFCs can use hydrogen gas (H2) as the fuel, but they can also operate on reformed
hydrocarbon fuels, such as methanol or ethanol. This fuel flexibility enhances their versatility and enables
the utilization of different fuel sources.

• Automotive Applications: PEFCs have been widely researched and developed for automotive applications,
such as hydrogen-powered vehicles. Their fast start-up, high power density, and compact size make them
suitable for this application.

• Portable Power Systems: PEFCs are also used in portable power systems, such as fuel cell-powered
laptops, mobile phones, and other portable electronic devices. Their compact size and ability to provide a
long runtime without the need for recharging make them attractive for these applications.
• Residential and Commercial Power Generation: PEFCs can be used for stationary power generation in
residential and commercial buildings, providing electricity and heat for heating, ventilation, and air
conditioning (HVAC) systems.
• Solid Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells offer advantages such as fast start-up, high power density, and fuel
 Fuel cell electrode materials
• are crucial components that enable the desired electrochemical reactions to occur
efficiently. Here are some commonly used electrode materials in fuel cells:

• Platinum (Pt): Platinum is widely utilized as a catalyst in fuel cell electrodes, particularly in
proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) and direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs). It
exhibits excellent catalytic activity for both the fuel oxidation reaction at the anode and
the oxidizer reduction reaction at the cathode. However, platinum is expensive and limited
in supply, which has spurred research efforts to find alternative catalyst materials.

• Platinum alloys: To mitigate the cost and enhance catalytic performance, researchers have
explored platinum alloys. For example, platinum can be alloyed with metals such as
ruthenium (Ru), palladium (Pd), or nickel (Ni) to improve catalytic activity while reducing
the overall amount of platinum required.
 Microbial Fuel Cell

• is a bioelectrochemical system that utilizes microorganisms to convert

organic matter directly into electricity through microbial metabolism.
MFCs harness the natural ability of certain bacteria, known as
electrogenic bacteria, to transfer electrons generated during their
metabolic processes to an electrode, creating an electric current.
Microbial Fuel Cell
 Working of a Microbial Fuel Cell

• The working principle of a Microbial Fuel Cell involves the following

steps:

• Anode Chamber: The MFC consists of an anode chamber and a

cathode chamber, separated by a proton exchange membrane (PEM)
or a microbial biofilm. The anode chamber contains the bacteria that
oxidize organic matter, such as wastewater or organic waste, to
generate electrons and protons.
• Electrogenic Bacteria: The bacteria, often from the family Geobacter
or Shewanella, are capable of extracellular electron transfer. These
bacteria break down organic compounds through their metabolic
processes, releasing electrons and protons as byproducts.
• Electron Transfer: The released electrons from the bacterial metabolism are
transferred to the anode electrode, which acts as the electron acceptor. The
electrons flow through an external circuit from the anode to the cathode, generating
an electric current.

• Proton Movement: Simultaneously, the protons (H+) generated during the bacterial
metabolism migrate through the PEM or microbial biofilm to the cathode chamber.

• Cathode Chamber: In the cathode chamber, an electron acceptor, usually oxygen

from the air or another suitable terminal electron acceptor, combines with the
protons and electrons from the anode to form water or other reduced byproducts.
• Power Generation: The continuous oxidation of organic matter by the bacteria in the anode chamber, coupled
with the reduction of the electron acceptor at the cathode, sustains the flow of electrons and protons, resulting
in the generation of electricity.
Key Features and Applications of Microbial Fuel Cells:
• Renewable Energy Generation: MFCs offer a potential method for renewable energy
generation by converting organic waste or wastewater into electricity.

• Wastewater Treatment: MFCs can be employed for wastewater treatment while

simultaneously generating electricity. The microbial processes in the MFC help break
down organic pollutants present in the wastewater, providing a dual benefit of energy
production and wastewater treatment.

• Sensors and Remote Monitoring: MFCs can power low-power sensors and remote
monitoring systems in areas where access to electricity is limited. This application is
particularly useful for environmental monitoring in remote locations.

• Bioremediation: MFCs can be used in environmental remediation efforts, such as the

treatment of contaminated soils or groundwater, by harnessing the microbial processes
to degrade organic pollutants while generating electricity.
Key Features and Applications of Microbial Fuel Cells:
• Sustainable Agriculture: MFCs can be integrated into agricultural
systems to treat agricultural waste, such as animal manure or crop
residues, while generating electricity. This helps in waste
management and reduces the environmental impact of agriculture.
• Education and Research: MFCs serve as educational tools and
research platforms for studying microbial metabolism,
electrochemistry, and renewable energy generation.
 Disadvantages
• While MFCs offer exciting potential for sustainable energy production,
their current power outputs are relatively low compared to other
conventional energy sources.

• Ongoing research aims to enhance the efficiency and scalability of

MFC technology to make it more commercially viable.
Research Going on……………………
• Improved electrode materials: Researchers have been exploring various
electrode materials to enhance MFC performance. For instance, the use of
carbon-based materials, such as graphene, carbon nanotubes, and
conductive polymers, has shown promise in increasing the power output and
overall efficiency of MFCs.

• Microbial communities and biofilms: Understanding the microbial

communities involved in MFCs and their interactions is crucial for optimizing
their performance. Researchers have been studying the structure and
dynamics of microbial communities, as well as the formation and properties
of biofilms in MFCs. This knowledge aids in improving system efficiency and
stability.
• Novel electron mediators: Electron mediators play a vital role in facilitating
electron transfer between the microorganisms and the electrode surface in
MFCs. Recent research has focused on developing new types of mediators,
such as synthetic molecules or redox-active polymers, to enhance electron
transfer kinetics and overall MFC performance.

• Scaling up and practical applications: Efforts have been made to scale up MFC
technology for practical applications. Researchers have explored the
integration of MFCs with wastewater treatment systems, microbial
desalination cells, and even portable devices for low-power applications.
These developments aim to demonstrate the viability and potential of MFCs
in real-world scenarios.
• Biodegradable and renewable substrates: MFCs can utilize a wide
range of organic substrates, and recent research has focused on
exploring biodegradable and renewable feedstocks. This includes the
use of various types of wastewater, lignocellulosic biomass, food
waste, and agricultural residues. By utilizing these substrates, MFCs
can contribute to waste treatment and bioenergy generation
simultaneously.

• Hybrid systems: Combining MFCs with other energy conversion

technologies has gained attention. Hybrid systems, such as integrating
MFCs with solar cells or microbial electrolysis cells, have been
investigated to enhance energy production and overall system
efficiency.
 Microbial fuel cells in waste management
applications

• Wastewater treatment: MFCs can be utilized as a sustainable alternative for

treating various types of wastewater, including domestic, industrial, and
agricultural effluents. The organic matter present in wastewater serves as a fuel
source for the microorganisms in the MFC, generating electricity while
simultaneously removing pollutants.

• Bioenergy recovery: MFCs offer a unique advantage by converting organic waste

directly into electricity. By harnessing the microbial activity, MFCs can generate
electrical energy while treating organic waste streams, providing a renewable
energy source.

• Solid waste degradation: MFCs can be employed to enhance the decomposition

of organic matter in solid waste, such as agricultural residues, food waste, and
landfill leachate. The microorganisms in the MFCs break down the organic
components, promoting decomposition and reducing the volume of waste.
 Microbial fuel cells in waste management
applications

• Landfill leachate treatment: Landfill leachate, the liquid that drains from
landfills, is typically high in organic matter and pollutants. MFCs can be used to
treat landfill leachate, removing organic contaminants and generating
electricity in the process.

• Odor control: Organic waste often produces unpleasant odors during

decomposition. MFCs can help mitigate odor issues by providing a controlled
environment for microbial degradation, reducing the release of volatile
compounds responsible for foul smells.

• Value-added byproducts: In addition to electricity generation, MFCs can

produce valuable byproducts during waste treatment. For instance, the
process can generate hydrogen gas, methane, or organic acids, which can be
utilized for other purposes such as energy storage, fuel production, or