Cell & Sub Cellular Organelles

Dr Arif Akbar Bhat

Department Of Biochemistry, GMC Srinagar
 Topic: Basic Biochemistry (01)
Competency (BC 1.1)
Describe the molecular and functional organization of a cell and its subcellular
components & composition and functions of Biological membranes.

No. Competency Predominan Level Core Suggested Suggested

t Domain T/L method Assessment
method
K/S/A K/KH/SH/P (Y/N)

1. Describe the
architecture,
compartmentation &
K KH Y LGT,SGT/ Written
membrane structure of a
SDL assessment
biological cell & its Viva voce
subcellular components.
2.
Explain membrane
transport, membrane
potentials & action
potentials

Feb 25, 2025

Learning Objectives

At the End of the competency the Phase 1

students should be able to:
 Outline the cell structure
 Describe the sub cellular
organelles
 Function of subcellular organelles
and their clinical utility
 Describe the fluidity of Membrane
 Describe the transport mechanisms
and indicate the abnormalities
related with transport mechanisms
Feb 25, 2025
 Definition of Cell
Cell is the basic Structural and
functional unit of living
organisms.
In other words, cells make up living things
and carry out activities that keep a living
thing alive.

A cell is the smallest unit that is capable

Cell Theory
Cell theory is a collection of
ideas and conclusions from
many different scientists over
time that describes cells and
how cells operate
 All Known living things are

made up of one or more cells

 All living cells arise from

preexisting cells by cell

division
Feb 25, 2025
Unicellular Organisms
An organism that is made up
of only one cell is called as
unicellular organism Yeast

Paramecium

Euglena

Feb 25, 2025

Multicellular Organisms
An organism that is made up
of more than one cell is called
as Multicellular organism
Plant
s

Fungus
Animals

Feb 25, 2025

Examples of Cells
Amoeba Proteus

Plant Stem

Bacteria

Nerve Cell

Red Blood Cell

Feb 25, 2025

 Size of Cells
Cells vary in size. Most cells are
very small (microscopic), some may
be very large (macroscopic).
The unit used to measure size of a
Smallest cell
cell is micrometer.
• Mycoplasma (Size: 0.1 μm)

Largest cell
• Ostrich egg (Size: 18 cm)
Feb 25, 2025
 Size of Cells in Humans

Largest cell Longest cell

Ovum cell Smallest cell Nerve cell
Size: 120 μm Sperm cell Size: 1 m
Size: 5 μm

Feb 25, 2025

Shape of Cells
Cells vary in shape. Variation depends
mainly upon the function of cells
Some cells like Euglena and Amoeba can
change their shape, but most cells have
a fixed shape.
Human RBCs are
circular
biconcave for
easy passage
through human
capillaries. Nerve cells are
branched to conduct
impulses from
Feb 25, 2025
one
Human WBCs can change their shape to engulf
the microorganisms that enter the body

Feb 25, 2025

 Two Types of Cells

 Prokaryoti

c
Simple cell that lacks a true nucleus and complex organelles

 Eukaryotic
Cells that contain a nucleus and organelles, and are
enclosed by a plasma membrane.
Prokaryotic
Do not have
structures
surrounded by
membranes

Few internal
structures

Mostly, One-celled
organisms,
Bacteria
Feb 25, 2025
 Eukaryotic
Contain well defined organelles surrounded by membranes
 Membrane system is well-defined
 May be unicellular (yeast, fungi) or multicellular (plants, animals)

Feb 25, 2025

“Typical” Animal Cell
1. Nucleus
2. Golgi body
3. Vesicle
4. Plasma membrane
5. Mitochondria
6. Cytoskeleton
7. Centriole
8. Lysosome
9. Cytoplasm
10. Rough endoplasmic
reticulum
11. Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum
12. Nucleolus Feb 25, 2025
 “Typical” Plant Cell
1. Nucleus
2. Golgi body
3. Vesicle
4. Plasma membrane
5. Mitochondria
6. ER
7. Chloroplast
8. Cell wall
9. Vacuole
10.Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum
11.Rough endoplasmic
reticulum
12.Nucleolus Feb 25, 2025
S ub C e l l u l a r
Org a n e l l e s

Feb 25, 2025

 Subcellular organelles and structures
create different intracellular
compartments having different
intracellular environments in which
different biochemical reactions take place.

 Functions of different organelles can be

studied in vitro by isolating them after
disrupting the cell and subjecting it to
differential centrifugation

Albert Claude got Nobel prize in

1974 for fractionating
subcellular organelles Feb 25, 2025
Feb 25, 2025
Separation of Subcellular organelles
After centrifugation, the separated
organelles are identified by detection of
marker enzymes in the sample

Feb 25, 2025

 Structure Of Cell
If we study a cell under a
microscope, we would come across
three features in almost every cell:

Plasma Membrane
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
 Cytosol
Endoplasmi
 Cell Organelles Mitochond
c reticulum ria
Golgibody Plastids
Lysosomes Centrosom
Feb 25, 2025
 Cell
Plasma Membrane
 Cell Membrane
-Extremely delicate, thin , elastic, living
and semi-permeable membrane.
-Made up of two layers of lipid molecules
in which protein molecules are floating.
-Thickness varies from 75-110 A˚
Functions
-Maintains shape &
size of the cell.
-Protects internal
contents of the cell.
-Regulates entry
and exit of
substances in and
Feb 25, 2025
out of the cell.
 Cell Wall

Most commonly found in plant cells &

bacteria
 Supports
 Protects cells Feb 25, 2025
 Nucleus
 Most Prominent
 All cells in the body contain nucleus,
except mature RBCs in circulation.
 Nucleus occupies most of the
available space
 Two membranes—the inner one
is called perinuclear membrane
with numerous Pores and the
outer membrane is continuous
with membrane of endoplasmic
reticulum. Feb 25, 2025
 Nucleus
 Contains DNA + proteins
= Chromosomes

 DNA replication and

RNA synthesis

 Area for RNA

processing and
ribosome synthesis –
Nucleolus
 Gabriel Valentine in 1836
described the nucleolus.
Feb 25, 2025
 Nucleolus

 Inside
nucleus
 Contains
RNA to
build
proteins

Feb 25, 2025

 Nuclear Membrane
 Surrounds
nucleus
 Made of two
layers
 Openings allow
material to
enter and leave
nucleus
Feb 25, 2025
 Chromosomes

 In nucleus
 Made of DNA
 Contain instructions for traits &
characteristics Feb 25, 2025
 Cytoplasm
 Gel-like mixture
 Surrounded by cell
membrane
 Contains hereditary
material

Feb 25, 2025

Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Network of tubular
and vesicular
structures which are
interconnected with
one another.
 Some parts are
connected to the
nuclear membrane,
while others are
connected to the cell
membrane
 Smooth type lacks
ribosome's
Feb 25, 2025
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Gives internal support to the
cytoplasm.
 RER synthesize secretory proteins and
membrane proteins.
 SER synthesize lipids for cell
membrane.
 In liver cells SER detoxify drugs &
poisons.
 Cytochrome P450(membrane of SER)
hydroxylates drugsFeb 25, 2025such as
 Ribosomes

 Each cell
contains
thousands
 Make proteins

 Found on floating
throughout the cell
Feb 25, 2025
 Mitochondria
 Spherical oval or rod like
bodies with 0.5-1 mm
diameter and 7mm length
 Mitochondria is the
power house of the cell
 Inner membrane -
electron transport chain

 Many oxidative pathways which generate

energy like beta oxidation of fatty Acids
and citric acid cycle occur in
mitochondria
Feb 25, 2025
 Urea synthesis (part), heme synthesis
 Mitochondria
 Produces energy
through chemical
reactions – breaking
down fats &
carbohydrates
 Controls level of water
and other materials in
cell
 Recycles and
decomposes proteins,
fats, and carbohydrates

Feb 25, 2025

 Mitochondria

 Superoxide dismutase is present in cytosol

and mitochondria
Feb 25, 2025
 Mitochondria
 Mitochondrial DNA
 The integral inner membrane proteins, are made by
mitochondrial protein synthesizing machinery
 The division of mitochondria is under the command of
mitochondrial DNA
 Antibiotics inhibiting bacterial protein synthesis do not
affect cellular processes, but do inhibit mitochondrial
protein biosynthesis
 Mitochondria play a role in triggering apoptosis

Feb 25, 2025

 Clinical Utility of Mitochondria
Mitochondrial diseases are a group of
metabolic disorders caused by defects in
the energy production of the cells. Some
of the common diseases are:
1. Mitochondrial encephalomyopathy,
lactic acidosis, and stroke-like episodes
(MELAS )syndrome

2. Leber Hereditary Optic Neuropathy

(LHON)
3. Kearns-Sayre syndrome (KSS)
Feb 25, 2025
 MELAS SYNDROME

MELAS stands for:

Mitochondrial myopathy – weakness of muscles throughout
the body
Encephalopathy – disease of the central nervous system
Lactic Acidosis - abnormal build-up of lactic acid, normally a
waste product, in the body
Stroke – occurs when the blood supply to part of the brain is
cut off by disease, and brain cells die.
Mitochondrial encephalomyopathy, lactic acidosis, and stroke-
like episodes
Feb 25, 2025
MELAS is a mitochondrial maternally
inherited genetic disorder caused by
alterations in mitochondrial DNA

It predominantly affects the nervous

system and muscles.

It typically appears in childhood after a

period of normal early development.

MELAS is due to point mutation of the

gene which encodes tRNA of leucine

Causes brain damage, seizures,

Feb 25, 2025 and
 LHON SYNDROME

LHON stands for:

Leber Hereditary Optic Neuropathy
Caused by gene mutation in mitochondria’s DNA
Means genetic disease causes VISION loss
LHON is a rare mitochondrial disorder primarily affecting
young males (15-35 years)
Painless unilateral profound loss of vision other eye
involved in few weeks or months due to optic nerve
degeneration. Feb 25, 2025
 KSS SYNDROME
KSS stands for:
Kearns–Sayre Syndrome

It is a rare mitochondrial myopathy caused by mutation in

mitochondrial DNA

Coordination and balancing problems while walking

Abnormally high protein in fluid that protects brain and spinal

Characterized by chronic progressive external

ophthalmoplegia (CPEO), pigmentary retinitis

Onset before the age of 20 years

Feb 25, 2025
 MERRF SYNDROME
MERRF stands for:
Myoclonic Epilepsy with Ragged Red Fibers

It is disease due to point mutation of gene which encodes

tRNA of lysine

Characterized by myopathy, generalized seizures and

ataxia

Abnormal-shaped mitochondrion is found in skeletal

muscle which has got paracrystalline structures giving the
appearance of ragged red fibers and hence the name

Feb 25, 2025

 Golgi Bodies
 Protein 'packaging
plant’
 Move materials
within the cell
 Move materials
out of the cell
 Camillo Golgi
described the
structure in 1898
(Nobel prize 1906).
Feb 25, 2025
 Golgi Apparatus
 Golgi apparatus is composed of
cis, medial and trans cisternae.
 Glycoproteins are generally
transported from ER to cis
Golgi (proximal cisterna),
(intermediate cisterna) (distal
cisterna) for temporary
storage.
 Energy dependent process.

 Connective tissue disorders like

Sjogren’s syndrome are found to be
associated with antigolgi
Feb 25, 2025
 The proteins coming from ER to Golgi
bodies are further modified here usually
by the addition of carbohydrate and lipid
prosthetic groups.
 All the Post translational modifications
take place in Golgi apparatus.
 Proper Folding of proteins also occur in
Golgi Apparatus.
 Function of Golgi apparatus is protein
sorting, packaging and secretion.

Feb 25, 2025

 Lysosome
 “Digestive plant”
for proteins, fats,
and
carbohydrates
 Transports

undigested
material to cell
membrane for
removal.
 Cell
 breaks in
Discovered down
1950 by Christian de
Duve
if (Nobel prize 1974)
lysosome
Feb 25, 2025
 Lysosomes
 Endocytic vesicles and phagosomes
are fused with lysosome (primary)
to form the secondary lysosome or
digestive vacuole
 The lysosomal Enzymes have an
optimal pH around 5. These
enzymes are:
 Polysaccharide hydrolysing
enzymes
 Protein hydrolysing enzymes
Feb 25, 2025
Functions of lysosome

Feb 25, 2025

 Clinical Applications of Lysosomes
 Arthritis in Gout – Sodium monourate crystals
when phagocytosed, cause physical damage to
lysosomes and release of enzymes - Inflammation
and arthritis
 Postmortem autolysis - Following cell death, the
lysosomes rupture releasing then hydrolytic
enzymes
 Tumour Metastasis - Lysosomal proteases
(Cathepsins) normally located within
lysosomes, are liberated out by certain cancer cells
tend to degrade the basal lamina of cell by
hydrolyzing collagen and elastin, so that other tumor
cells can travel out to form distant metastasis.
Feb 25, 2025
 Lysosomal Storage Diseases-There
are a few genetic diseases, where
lysosomal enzymes are deficient or
absent. This leads to accumulation of
lipids or polysaccharides
 Silicosis-Inhalation of silica particles-
Lysosomal membrane ruptures,
releasing the enzymes. This stimulates
fibroblast to proliferate and deposit
collagen fibers, resulting in fibrosis and
decreased lungs elasticity.
 Inclusion Cell Disease-Rare condition
in which lysosomes lack Feb
in25,enzymes,
2025 but
 Peroxisomes
 Peroxisomes are granular membrane bound
subcellular structures containing
peroxidases/catalases
 They are predominant in leukocytes and
platelets.
 R-OOH → R-OO•
 (Peroxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids)

Feb 25, 2025

Feb 25, 2025
 Peroxisomal deficiency diseases
 Adrenoleukodystrophy ALD (Brown-
Schilder’s disease) -ALD accumulate high
levels of saturated, very long chain fatty
acids (VLCFA) in the nervous system and
adrenal cortex (the largest part of an adrenal
gland).
 Deficiency of peroxisomal matrix
proteins - Characterised by progressive
degeneration of liver, kidney and Brain. It is
a rare autosomal recessive condition
occurring due to insufficient oxidation of very
long chain fatty acids
Feb 25, 2025
 Vacuoles
 Membrane-bound sacs
for storage, digestion,
and waste removal

 Contains water
solution

 Help plants maintain

shape

Feb 25, 2025

 Chloroplast
 Usually found in plant
cells

 Contains green
chlorophyll

 Where photosynthesis
takes place

Feb 25, 2025

Cytoskeleton

Feb 25, 2025

Feb 25, 2025
THANK
YOU
Feb 25, 2025