Unit 4-Moral education and personal responsibility

Vocabulary
Abdication : criminal act of capturing and carrying away by force a family.
Modal auxiliary verb

AUXILIARIES AND MODALS

 The verbs be (am, is, was, etc), have and do, when used with ordinary verbs to
make tenses, passive forms, questions and negatives, are called auxiliary verbs or
auxiliaries. (Auxiliary = helping)
 The verbs can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, must and ought are
called modal verbs or modals. They are used before ordinary verbs and express
meanings such as permission, possibility, certainty and necessity.

Modals are often included in the group of auxiliaries. In some grammars they are
called “modal auxiliaries”.
The modals can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would, must and ought are
termed Defective Verbs, because some parts are wanting in them. They have no -s in
the third person singular; they have no - ing and ed forms.

. Examples: He can speak Chinese.

 She should be here by 9:00.

 You use not to make modal verbs negative, even in Simple Present and Simple
Past.
•Examples: He should not be late.

•They might not come to the party

BE.

The auxiliary be is used

(1) In the formation of the continuous tenses; as, He is working. I was writing.

(2) In the formation of the passive; as,

 The gate was opened.

Be followed by the infinitive is used

(1) To indicate a plan, arrangement, or agreement; as,

•I am to see him tomorrow.

• We are to be married next month.

(2) To denote command; as,

•You are to write your name at the top of each sheet of paper.

• Mother says you are to go to market at once

Be is used in the past tense with the perfect infinitive to indicate an
arrangement that was made but not carried out ; as,

•They were to have been married last month but had to postpone the

marriage until June.

 HAVE /HAS

1. The auxiliary have is used in the formation of the perfect tenses; as,

• He has worked.

• He has been working.

2. Have to is used with the infinitive to indicate obligation; as,

• I have to be there by five o’clock.

• He has to move the furniture himself.

3. The past form had to is used to express obligation in the past.

• I had to be there by five o’clock.
• He had to move the furniture himself.
4. In negatives and questions, have to and had to are used with do, does, did; as,
•They have to go. → They don’t have to go.

• Do they have to go?

•He has to go. → He doesn’t have to go. Does he have to go?

•He had to go. → He didn’t have to go. Did he have to go?

 DO

 The auxiliary ‘do’ is used

1. To form the negative and interrogative of the simple present and simple past
tenses of ordinary verbs ; as,
• He doesn’t work. He didn’t work. Does he work? Did he work?

2. To avoid repetition of a previous ordinary verb ; as,

•Do you know him ? Yes, I do.

•She sings well. Yes, she does.

•You met him, didn’t you ?

•He eats fish and so do you.

3. ‘Do’ is also used to emphasize the affirmative nature of a statement; as,

 You do look pale. I told him not to go, but he did go.
5. In the imperative, do makes a request or invitation more persuasive; as,

• Do be quiet, Oh, do come !

• It’s going to be such fun. In such cases do is strongly stressed
 CAN, COULD, MAY, MIGHT
 Can is used:
1. Can is used to describe the ability to do something.
• I can swim very well.
•Can he speak English fluently? - No, he can't.
• We cannot sing at all!
2. It expresses the possibility to do something.
•We can go to the seaside at last. Our holidays start next week.
3. We use it to say that something is probable.
•It can be John. He has blond hair and he is wearing glasses.
4. It expresses the permission to do something. Why not?
 You can marry her. She is a nice girl.
MAY is used:
1. May is used for permissions.
•You may borrow my car. I won't need it.
•May I smoke here? - No, you can't, I'm sorry.
2. It is used to express probability or prediction.
• They may call tomorrow. I hope so.
The main difference between may and can is in style. May is more formal than
can. Can is typical of spoken English.
The opposite of may is must not or may not.

 May I smoke here?

 You mustn't smoke here. (strong prohibition)
 You may not smoke here. (more polite, very formal)
 You can't smoke here. (informal spoken English)
Could and might are used as the past equivalents of can and
may ; as,
• I could swim across the river when I was young. (Ability)
• He said I might/could go. (Permission)
• I thought he might be at home. (Possibility)
• She wondered whether it could be true. (Possibility)
We should use was/were able to for ability +action in the past.
When the boat was upset, we were able to (or managed to) swim to
the bank. (not : we could swim to the bank)
 In negative statements, however, either could or was/were able to may be used.
 I couldn’t (or: wasn’t able to) solve the puzzle. It was too difficult.
 In present-time contexts could and might are used as less positive versions
of can and may ; as,
 I could attend the party. (Less positive and more hesitant than ‘I can attend the
party’.)
 Might/Could I borrow your bicycle? (A diffident way of saying ‘May/Can
I.......’)
 It might rain tomorrow. (Less positive than ‘It may rain......’)
 Could you pass me the salt? (Polite request)
Might is also used to express a degree of dissatisfaction or reproach ; as,
 You might pay a little more attention to your appearance.
9. Note the use of can, could, may and might with the perfect infinitive:
 He is not there. Where can he have gone? (= Where is it possible that he has
gone? - May expresses annoyance.)
 You could have accepted the offer. (= Why didn’t you accept the offer?)
 Fatima may/might have gone with Jemal. (= Possibly Fatima has gone/ went
with Jemal.)
 Why did you drive so carelessly? You might have run into the lamp post. . (= It
is fortunate that you didn’t run into the lamp-post.)
  SHALL, SHOULD, WILL, WOULD
Shall is used in the first person and will in all persons to express pure
future. Today I/we shall is less common than I/we will; as,
 I shall/will be twenty-five next birthday.
 We will need the money on 15th.
 When shall we see you again?
 Tomorrow will be Sunday.
 You will see that I am right.
In present-day English, however, there is a growing tendency to use will in
all persons.
Shall is sometimes used in the second and third persons to express a
command, a promise, or threat ; as,
 He shall not enter my house again. (Command)
 You shall have a holiday tomorrow. (Promise)
 You shall be punished for this. (Threat)
Questions with shall I/we are used to ask the will of the person
addressed ; as,
 Shall I open the door? (i.e., Do you want me to open it?)
 Which pen shall I buy? (i.e., what is your advice?)
 Where shall we go? (What is your suggestion?)
Will is used to express
(1) Volition; as,
 I will (=am willing to) carry your books.
 I will (=promise to) try to do better next time.
 I will (=am determined to) succeed or die in the attempt. In the last example above, will is
strong-stressed.
(2) Characteristic habit; as,
 He will talk about nothing but films.
 She will sit for hours listening to the wireless.
 (3) Assumption or probability ; as,
 This will be the book you want, I suppose.
 That will be the postman, I think.
Will you? indicates an invitation or a request ; as,
 Will you have tea?
 Will you lend me your scooter?
Should and would are used as the past equivalents of shall and will ;
as,
 I expected that I should (more often: would) get a first class.
 He said he would be twenty-five next birthday.
 She said she would carry my books.
 She would sit for hours listening to the wireless. (Past habit)
Should is used in all persons to express duty or obligation ; as,
 We should obey the laws.
 You should keep your promise.
 Children should obey their parents.
Should and would are also used as in the examples below.
(i)I should (or : would) like you to help her. (‘Should/would like’ is a
polite form of ‘want’).
(ii) (ii) Would you lend me your scooter, please ? (‘Would you ?’ is more
polite than ‘Will you ?’)
(iii) You should have been more careful. (Should+perfect infinitive

indicates a past obligation that was not fulfilled).

(iv) He should be in the library now. (Expresses probability)
• (v) I wish you would not chatter so much. (Would after wish expresses
a strong desire).
MUST, OUGHT TO
1. Must is used to express necessity or obligation.
 You must improve your spelling.
 We must get up early.
 Must refers to the present or the near future. To talk about the past we
use had to (the past form of have to); must has no past form.
1. Yesterday we had to get up early.
Must is often used when the obligation comes from the speaker. When the
obligation comes from somewhere else, have to is often used.
Compare: I must be on a diet. (It is my own idea.) I have to be on a diet. (The
doctor has told me to be on a diet.)
Must can also express logical certainty.
 Living in such crowded conditions must be difficult. (=I am sure it is
difficult.)
 She must have left already. (I am sure she has left already).
Ought (to) expresses moral obligation or desirability; as,
 We ought to love our neighbors.
 We ought to help him.
 You ought to know better.
Ought (to) can also be used to express probability; as
 Prices ought to come down soon.
 This book ought to be very useful.
•USED (TO), NEED, DARE
 The auxiliary used (to) expresses a discontinued habit.
 There used to be a house there.
 I used to live there when I was a boy.
Used (to) as an auxiliary verb is old-fashioned and very formal.
Today we normally use did in negatives and questions (e.g.)
 Did you used to swim ?)
The auxiliary need, denoting necessity or obligation, can be
conjugated with or without do.
When conjugated without do, it has no -s and -ed forms and is used
with an infinitive without to only in negative and interrogative
sentences and in sentences that contain semi-negative words like
‘scarcely’ and ‘hardly’.
 He need not go. (=It is not necessary for him to go.)
 Need I write to him?
 I need hardly take his help.
 When conjugated with do, need has the usual forms needs, needed and is
used with a to-infinitive. It is commonly used in negatives and questions ;
it sometimes occurs in the affirmative also.
 Do you need to go now?
 I don’t need to meet him.
 One needs to be careful.
Compare : (i) I didn’t need to buy it. (=It was not necessary for me to buy
it and I didn’t buy it.)
• (ii) I needn’t have bought it. (=It was not necessary for me to buy it, but
I bought it.)
The auxiliary dare (=be brave enough to), as distinct from the ordinary verb
dare (=challenge), does not take -s in the third person singular present tense. It is
generally used in negative and interrogative sentences.
When conjugated without do, it is followed by an infinitive without to ; when
conjugated with do, it takes an infinitive with or without to after it.
 He dare not take such a step.
 How dare you contradict me ?
 He dared not do it.
 He doesn’t dare speak to me.
•
So and Neither
Boru: I‟m hungry.
Roba: So am I.
jiru : I haven‟t eaten anything all day.
Daniel: Neither have I. I didn‟t have time for breakfast.
We use so after a positive statement and neither after a
negative one.
I'm hungry. ~ So am I. (I’m hungry, too.)
I haven't eaten. ~ Neither have I. (I haven't eaten either.)
The structure is so/neither + an auxiliary + the subject. The auxiliary is a
form of be or have or a modal verb, e.g. can.
 We’re really busy at work. _ So are we.
 Tom has gone to the match. _ So has John.
David can’t drive. Neither can I.
In the Present Simple and Past Simple we use a form of do.
 I like tennis – So do I.
 I watch the news every day – I do too.
 Arsenal won. _ So did Rangers.
 I don’t like tennis – Neither do I.
 I don’t watch television every day – I don’t either
How would you say sorry to someone? Look at these expressions:
Phrases for Apologizing Ways to Respond to an Apology
I am sorry that..…
That‘s OK.
I apologize for … It happens.
I hope you will forgive me but … No problem.
I seem to have made a mistake. Don‘t worry about it.
I‘m really sorry. forgive you. (for serious
problems)
I am sorry for the misunderstanding…
I hope you will understand …
It‘s my fault.
Examples:
A: I'm sorry that I was so rude yesterday. B: I forgive you.
A: I apologize for the delay. B: That’s okey.
 • 'So do I' and 'neither do I'
 I use 'so do I' to say that a positive sentence is also true for me,
and I use 'neither do I' to say that a negative sentence is also
true for me:
 John: I hate mushrooms.
 Me: So do I (=I also hate mushrooms).
 Lucy: I don't live in London.

Me: Neither do I (=I also don't live in London.

 This is often used as a reply to someone else in a conversation, but both
sentences can also be said by the same person, and even joined
together:
• Me: Elizabeth loves coffee. So do I.
• Me: Harry doesn't play the piano and neither do I.
 In the examples above, we use 'do' because the first sentence is in the
present simple tense. The verb after 'so' or 'neither' changes depending on
the tense of the verb in the first sentence.
•(This is very similar to tag questions).
Present simple: use 'do / Lucy likes coffee. So do I.
does' Lucy doesn't like coffee.
Neither do I.
Present simple with 'be': use John's at the office. So am I.
'am / is / are' John isn't at the office. Neither am
I.

Present continuous: Luke's going out tonight. So am I.

use 'am / is / are' Luke isn't going out tonight. Neither
am I.
Past Simple: use 'did' Bontu went to the cinema yesterday. So did I.
Bontu didn't go to the cinema yesterday.
Neither did I.

Past simple with 'be': She was at the library. So was I.

use 'was / were' She wasn't at the l
ibrary. Neither was I.
Present perfect: They've been to Colombia. So have I.
use 'have / has' They haven't been to Colombia. Neither have I.
Future simple: Edward will be at the cafe later. So will I.
use 'will' Edward won't be at the cafe later.
Neither will I.

Modal verbs: He would like a cup of tea. So would I.

repeat the modal He wouldn't like a cup of tea.
verb Neither would I.
Emma can speak Russian. So can I.
Emma can't speak Russian. Neither can I.
What about 'too' and 'either'?
We can also use 'I do too' and 'I don't either', which mean the same as 'so do I' and
'neither do I'.

• John: I hate mushrooms.

• Me: I do too (=I also hate mushrooms).
• Lucy: I don't live in London.
• Me: I don't either (=I also don't live in London).
The verb changes in the same way as with 'so do I' and 'neither do I' (remember
you need a negative verb with 'either'):

Present simple: John's at the office. I am too.

Present continuous: Luke isn't going out tonight. I'm not either.
Present perfect: They've been to Colombia. I have too.
Modal verbs: Emma can't speak Russian. I can't either.
 'Me too' and 'me neither':
We can also use 'me too' and 'me neither'. 'Me too' has the
same meaning as 'so + auxiliary verb + I' and 'me neither'
has the same meaning as 'neither + auxiliary verb + I'. 'Me
too' and 'me neither' are very informal.
• John: I hate mushrooms.
• Me: Me too (=I also hate mushrooms).
• Lucy: I don't live in London.
• Me: Me neither (=I also don't live in London).
  Subjects other than 'I':
Of course, we can also use these expressions to talk about what's true
for other people, not just ourselves.
• John: I hate mushrooms.
• Me: So does Laura / Laura does too / Laura too.
• Lucy: I don't live in London.
• Me: Neither does David / David doesn't either / David neither.
 Some more examples:
• We live in London and so do they.
• Emma loves tennis. Jill and Laura do too.
• My parents don't come here often. Neither does Sura.
• She isn't French and neither is he.
• You don't like cold weather. Neither do we.
•Like nouns, gerunds can be the subject, object or complement of sentence:
1. Gerunds act as subjects.
•Caring for others is right.
•Watching television is by far the most popular activity at the weekends.
2. Gerunds act as direct objects.
•I don‟t like cheating.
•The teacher enjoys teaching.
3. Gerunds act as objects of prepositions.
•You should improve your health by doing exercise every day.
•He is bad at remembering appointments.
4. Gerunds act as subject complements.
•My favourite occupation is reading.
•The rules are confusing.
5. Gerunds can be used in perfect form (having + past participle).
•He denied having been married.
•I went home having lost all my money,
TRANSITION WORDS: CAUSE & EFFECT

 BECAUSE & SINCE: BECAUSE and SINCE​are used to show a ​CAUSE​or ​

REASON​. We went to the beach because it was sunny.
We stayed home​since it was raining​.
 Be careful: Since can also be used to show​time,​for example:
I have lived at Ambo since 2021.

 We sometimes use​AS ​to show a cause or reason. As ​is used in formal

writing more often than in speech.
We went to the beach ​as​it was sunny.
As​it was raining, I stayed home and watched a movie.
DUE TO &​​BECAUSE OF:

​These transition words are followed by a ​noun phrase ​or ​'the fact that'​
. ( by clause)
 ​We were late due to​the traffic.

 We were late due to​​the fact that there was a lot of traffic.
• We were late because of the traffic.
• We were late ​because of​​the fact that ​there was a lot of traffic.
 How to use ​​Transition Words​​and Commas:

If the transition word comes at the beginning of the sentence, we use a
comma; otherwise, we do not.

• Because​it was sunny, we went to the beach.

• We went to the beach because ​it was sunny.

• Since it was raining, we stayed home. We stayed home ​since​it was raining.​

•As​I was late, I didn't eat breakfast. I didn't eat breakfast as​I was late.

•Due to the traffic, we were late. We were late ​due to ​the traffic.
• Because of​the traffic, we were late. We were late ​because of​the traffic.
EFECT / RESULT
SO & THEREFORE:
SO and THEREFORE are used to show an EFFECT or RESULT.
 It was raining, so we stayed home.
 I woke up late; therefore, I didn't eat breakfast.
 I have a headache. Therefore, I will stay home tonight.

We sometimes use THUS &HENCE to show an EFFECT or REASON.

THUS &HENCE are used in formal writing more often than in speech.
 It was sunny; hence, we went to the beach.
 There was a lot of traffic; thus, we were late.
 AS A RESULT OF: ​This transitional phrase can be followed by a noun
phrase ​or an ​independent clause​.

• We were late ​as a result of ​the traffic. (noun clause)

• We were late ​as a result of driving​through traffic. (noun clause)

• We were late​; as a result, ​we missed the beginning of the movie.​​
(independent clause)
• Expressing agreement and Disagreement
• Expressing agreement Expressing disagreement
 I agree with you 100 percent.  I don't think so.
· I couldn't agree with you  (strong) No way.
more.  I'm afraid I disagree.
 That's so true.  (strong) I totally disagree.
 That's for sure.  I beg to differ.
 You're absolutely right.  (strong) I'd say the exact
 Absolutely. opposite.
 That's exactly how I feel.  Not necessarily.
 No doubt about it.  No, I'm not so sure about
 I was just going to say that. that.
 Phrases for Apologising Ways to Respond to an Apology
phrases for Apologising Ways to Respond to an Apology
I am sorry that..… That‘s OK.
I apologise for … It happens.
I hope you will forgive me but … No problem.
I seem to have made a mistake. Don‘t worry about it.
I‘m really sorry. I forgive you. (for serious
I am sorry for the problems)
misunderstanding…
I hope you will understand …
It‘s my fault.
Examples:
• A: I’m sorry that I was so rude yesterday. B: I forgive you.

• A: I apologize for the delay. B: That’s Ok.

• Expressions for warning people to avoid danger or bad things include:

• Don’t ………….
• Whatever you do, don’t ………
• Be careful! ……………………..
• I’m warning you…
• If I were you, I would……..
Examples:

• Don’t try to open the door when the train is moving.

• Whatever you do, don’t take a lift from an unofficial taxi driver.

•I’m warning you, if you do that again, there will be problems.

• If I were you, I wouldn’t eat that. It’s been sitting in the refrigerator for
two weeks.
•Adjectives of character
•A list of English words there are often used to describe someone’s character.

1. Brave: someone who is not afraid of danger.

•Example : Mamo is a coastguard. He is very brave his job is to rescue people.

2. Chatty: someone who talks a lot.

• Example: Jalane is very chatty person. She is always on the phone to friends.
3. Clever: good at learning things.
• Example: Ayantu is very clever. She always gets top marks in class.
4. Cowardly: (negative) someone who is afraid of things.( often described as a bit of
coward.)
• Example: suleman is a bit o coward. He really going to dentist.
5. Easy-going: someone who is easy to get along with.
• Example: my friend is very easy-going
6. Friendly: someone who is nice to other people.
• Example: the people in my office are really friendly. I love working there.
7. Funny: used to describe someone who is amusing.
• Example: Tola is really funny. He always entertaining us with jokes and Stories.
8. Generous: someone who share their time or things with others.
• Example:
9. Grumpy; bad-tempered.
• Example; my boss is really grumpy. He is not an easy person to get along with
10. Hard-working: someone who works very hard.
Example: my brother is very hard-working. He hardly ever takes a day off.
11. Honest: someone who is truthful and who doesn’t cheat or steal.
Example: Amina is very honest. She always tells the truth.
12. Kind: someone who behaves on a caring way toward other people.
13. Lazy: ( negative) an inactive person who avoids work.
Example: zertu is lazy. She rarely gets out of bed before mid afternoon.
14. Loud: someone who talks really loudly.

Example; Chaltu is really loud; when she talks she drowns everybody else
out.
15. Lucky: someone who often has good fortune.
• Example: My brother is very lucky. He is always winning prizes in competitions.
16. Mean; (1) someoe who is nasty person.
• ( 2) omeone who doen’t like spending money.
• Example: Jobir is very mean. He never pays for his share of things.
17. Moody: adjective used to describe someone who behaves differently every time
you meet hem.
• Example: Jarso is very moody. Yesterday he said hello, today he jest ignored me
18. Nasty: a mean, unpleasant person( the opposite of nice.)
• Example: I don’t know any nasty people. I know they are very nice.
19. Neat: a person who is very tidy.
• Example; My class mate Abdi is very neat and well organized. His room is
always tidy.
20. Nervous: someone who is easily startled by things.
• Example: Amina is very nervous person. She gets scared easily.
21. Nice: someone who is friendly and kind.( the opposite of nasty.)
• Example: My best friend Beyene is really nice person. He always there for
me.
22. Polite: someone who has good manner.
• Roba is a very polite boy, he always says please and thank you.
23. Popular: someone who is liked by many people.
• Example: my brother Gudeta is very popular. He has a lot of friends.
24. Quiet: used to describe someone who doen’t talk very much.
• Example: Jalene is a quiet person. She is not very talkative.
1. Rude: bad-mannered, impolite.
25. Example: Agesa is a rude person. He always pushes in front of people in
queues.
26. Selfish: used to describe someone who only thinks about themselves.
27. Serious: someone who is always very sensible.( the opposite of silly.)
• Example; Jafar is very serious person. He never joins in when we play
silly games.
28. Shy: quiet and a little bit nervous around other people.
• Example: Sore is very shy. She doesn’t speak in class.
29. Silly: someone who is a bit foolish or who doesn’t behaves in a serious
way.
• Example: Dugasa is a bit silly. He messes about in class when he sould be
working.
30. Smart: A. someone who takes a lot of care over their appernce.
• Example; boku is smart. He always neatly dressed.
• B. someone who is very clever. Example: Ayo is very smart. She is one of
the most intelligent people I know.
• 31. Stupid: ( very negative and very inpolite sometimes used as insult.)
someone who is not clever
32. Unlucky. Someone who often suffers from bad fortune.

Example : Dube is unlucky. Things always seem to go wrong for him.

33. Untidy: someone who is very messy.

Example; he is messy person. He always forgets to put things away.

34. Vain: ( negative) someone who is a bit too fond of their looks.

Example: Beshatu is really vain. She spends to much time looking in mirror.

35. Wise: someone with a lot of common sense and knowledge.

Example : my grandfather was very wise man. He taught me many things
•Adverbs of Manner

•Adverbs tell us more about the verb. They make your writing more
interesting. Adverbs of manner tell us more about how or in what way an
action is done. Examples of adverbs of manner are “nicely, beautifully,
slowly, carefully, awfully..."

Example: The boy walked slowly to school. (Slowly tells us how the boy
walked to school.)
He drove the lorry carelessly. (Carelessly shows how he drove.)
 position

A. These adverbs come after the direct object.

Example: He did the work efficiently. (efficiently comes after the direct object
the work.)
 He spoke English fluently. (fluently comes after the direct object English.)
B. When we have verb+ preposition+ object, the adverb can be either before
the preposition or after the object:
 He looked at me suspiciously or He looked suspiciously at me.
 But if the object contains a number of words we put the adverb before the
prepositions:
 She carefully picked up all the bits of broken glasses.
C. Adverbs of manner can also be used after the verb if there isn't any
direct object.
 Example: He spoke fluently. (fluently comes after the verb spoke.)
 He runs quickly. (quickly comes after the verb run)
The position of the adverb can also affect the meaning of the sentence,
especially when the sentence has more than one verb.
Compare the very different meanings of these two sentences:
•  She quietly asked me to pour the coffee. (quietly ask)
•  she asked me to pour the coffee quietly. (quietly pour)
 FORMATION OF ADVERBS.
Adverbs of Manner are mostly formed from Adjectives by adding ly ;

as, Clever, cleverly; wise, wisely ; kind, kindly ; foolish, foolishly ; quick, quickly;

beautiful, beautifully.

• Abajfar was a wise king.

• He ruled wisely for many years.

When the Adjective ends in y preceded by a consonant, change y into i and add ly ;
as, Happy, happily ; ready, readily ; heavy, heavily.
When the Adjective ends in consonant + le, simply change e into y ; as,

Single, singly ; double, doubly; simple, simply,

Note that the adverb of good is well.
B. Adjectives ending in iy: friendly, likely, lonely can’t be used as an adverb
and have no adverb form.
To supply this deficiency we use a similar adverb or adverb phrase:
likely( adjective) = probably( adverb)
friendly( adjective) = in a friendly way( adverb)
Constructions with comparisons
When the same verb is required in both clauses we normally use an
auxiliary for the second verb.
A. With the positive form we use as…as with an affirmative verb, and
as/so….as with the negative verb.
 He worked as slowly as he dared.
 He doesn’t snore as/so loudly as you do.
 It didn’t take as/so long as I expected.
B. With the comparative form we use than:
 He eats more quickly than I do/than me.
C. The + comparative… the + comparative.
The earlier you start the sooner you will be back.( time adverb) We make D.
D. the comparative and superlative forms of adverbs by using 'more / most'.

• She sang loudly.

• She sang more loudly than her friend.
• She sang most loudly in the class.
 • Adjectives and Adverbs
• Adjectives

•We use adjectives to describe nouns and pronouns. Adjectives can come
before nouns or after linking verbs.

• Before the noun:

•He dropped the hot plate.
•I have a black cat.
•The small boy ran down the street.
•What a beautiful view!
After a linking verb:
•He seems tired.
•The view is beautiful.
• The weather became cold.
• My cat is black.
• (Linking verbs are verbs like 'be', 'become' and 'seem' which are not
actions but instead link the subject to an adjective, noun or phrase
that gives us more information about the subject.)
 We make the comparative and superlative of adjectives by adding either '-er
/ -est' or using 'more / most'.
• She is tall.
• She is taller than her sister.
• She is the tallest person in the class.
• She is more beautiful than her sister.
• She is the most beautiful in her family.
The comparative degree is generally followed by than; but
Comparative Adjectives ending in -or are followed by the preposition
to; as, : Inferior, superior, prior, anterior, posterior, senior, junior.
 Chaltu is inferior to Robe in intelligence.

 Robe’s intelligence is superior to Chaltu’s.

 His marriage was prior to his father’s death.

 He is junior to all his colleagues.

 All his colleagues are senior to him.

 Adverb or adjective?
It's important to remember to use an adjective after a linking verb. However, this can
be tricky as some verbs can be used as both normal verbs and as linking verbs. One
test is to replace the verb with the same form of 'be' and see if the sentence still makes
sense. If it does, the verb is being used as a linking verb and so needs an adjective, not
an adverb.
 He smells the hot soup carefully. (Here we are talking about the action of smelling

and using smell as a normal verb, so we need an adverb.)

 The soup smells good. (Here we are using 'smell' as a linking verb, to describe the
soup. We can replace 'smells' with 'is' and the sentence still makes sense. So, we need
an adjective.)
 He looked tiredly at the dirty kitchen. (Here we are talking about the
action of looking and using 'look' as a normal verb, so we use an adverb
to describe the way of looking.)
 You look beautiful. (Here we are using 'look' as a linking verb, to give
more information about the person. We can replace 'look' with 'are' and
the sentence still makes sense. So we need an adjective.)
•Normally, we make an adverb by adding '-ly' to an adjective

•Irregular forms
careful (adjective) He carefully (adverb)
is always careful. She put the glasses down
carefully.
quiet (adjective) This quietly (adverb) She
is a quiet room. spoke quietly.

bad (adjective) This badly (adverb)

coffee is bad! He sings badly!
 If the adjective ends in 'y', we change 'y' to 'i' and add '-ly'. If the adjective
ends in 'le', we drop 'e' and add '-y'.

happy (adjective) happily (adverb)

 She looks very happy. He sang happily.

gentle (adjective) gently (adverb)

It's a gentle cat. sensible: He stroked the cat
suitable: gently.
true: Suitably,
truly
•However, there are some exceptions.
fast (adjective) That's a fast car. fast (adverb)
She walk fast.
early (adjective) Early(adverb)
She was early for the meeting. He arrived
early.
good (adjective) That is a good book. well (adverb)
She did well on the exam.
('Well' can also be an
adjective. See below.)
hard (adjective) Maths is hard (adverb)
hard! She tried hard. ('Hardly' is also an
adverb, but means 'almost none'.
See below)

late (adjective) He is late (adverb)

always late! He got up late this morning.
('Lately' is also an adverb but
means 'recently'. See below.)
•Good / well
 'Well' can be confusing because it is both the adverb form of 'good', and an
adjective that means 'healthy and fine'.

• My mother is well ('well' is an adjective that means 'healthy and fine').

• He did the work well ('well' is an adverb meaning 'in a good way').
•Of course, we also use 'good' as an adjective.

• This meal is good!

• He can speak good German.
•Hard / hardly
• 'Hard' is both an adjective and an adverb.

• The table is hard (= adjective, meaning 'not soft' or 'difficult').

• She works hard (= adverb, meaning 'with a lot of effort').

•'Hardly' is also an adverb, but it means 'almost nothing' or 'almost none'.
• She hardly works (= she does almost no work).
• I have hardly any money (= I have almost no money).
•Late / lately
•'Late' is an adjective and an adverb. There is also an adverb 'lately', which
means 'recently'.
• I'm late (= adjective, meaning 'not on time'). He came late (= adverb,
meaning 'not on time').

• I've been working a lot lately (= an adverb meaning 'recently').