Introductio

o n e n to
a pter -
heat transf
C h
er
 objectives
0 At the end of the chapter you are expected to define and appreciate
heat transfer.
0 Distinguish the modes of heat transfer as;
0 Conduction
0 Convection
0 Radiation

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 What is & why heat transfer
0 In the study of thermodynamics we have defined heat
transfer (or heat) as thermal energy in transit due to a
spatial temperature difference.
0 Thermodynamics concerned on the amount of heat transfer
as a system undergoes a process from one equilibrium state
to another.
0 In most engineering applications we are more interested on
the rates of energy interactions in addition to the amount.

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 What is & why heat transfer
0 The study of heat transfer concerned about the rate of thermal
energy transfer and temperature distribution at any position and
time.
0 The heat transfer analysis is governed by
0 the fundamental laws [laws of thermodynamics and Newton’s law of
motion]
0 Subsidiary laws [ideal gas equation]
0 When the principles of heat transfer applied to analyze heat
transfer equipment like boilers, furnaces, radiators…etc, it is
called Engineering heat transfer.

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Application

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 What is & why heat transfer
0 The heat transfer problems encountered in practice can be
considered in two groups:
0 Rating problem deal with the determination of the heat transfer
rate for an existing system at a specified temperature difference.
0 Sizing problem deal with the determination of the size of a system
in order to transfer heat at a specified rate for a specified
temperature difference
0 A heat transfer process or equipment can be studied either
experimentally (testing and taking measurements) or analytically
(by analysis or calculations).

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 Heat transfer mechanisms
0 Heat can be transferred in three different modes:
0 conduction, occurs when a temperature gradient exists through a
solid or a stationary fluid (liquid or gas).
0 convection, occurs within a moving fluid, or between a solid surface
and a moving fluid, when they are at different temperatures and
0 radiation, occurs b/n two surfaces at different temperature with
absence of intervening medium.
0 All modes of heat transfer require the existence of a temperature
difference, and all modes are from the high-temperature region to
a lower-temperature one.

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 Conduction
0 Conduction may be viewed as the transfer of
energy from the more energetic to the less
energetic particles of a substance due to
interactions between the particles.
0 Conduction can take place in solids, liquids, or
gases [in the absence of bulk motion of particles].
0 In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the
collisions and diffusion of the molecules during
their random motion.
0 In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations
of the molecules in a lattice and the energy
transport by free electrons.
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 Conduction
0 Consider a steady heat conduction rate of through a large plane
wall of thickness of ∆x and perpendicular area of A. The
temperature difference across the wall is ∆T = T1 T2.
0 Experiments show that the rate of heat transfer is
proportional with the temperature difference and heat
transfer area, and inversely proportional with thickness of
the wall;
….. …. ….. eq.1.1
0 Inserting the proportionality constant to eq.1.1
= [W]….. … … eq.2.1
Where k is called the thermal conductivity of the material of
the plane wall. 9
 Conduction
0 Writing eq.2.1 for differential condition, i.e as ∆x , yields the
Fourier’s law of heat conduction, which states that the heat
flux(q’’) is proportional with the temperature gradient.
q’’ k … ….. ….. eq.3.1
0 The minus sign is to ensure the heat transfer is positive in the
positive x-axis direction. And note that the heat transfer area A is
always normal to the direction of heat transfer.
Thermal conductivity, k; is defined as the rate of heat transfer
through a unit thickness of the material per unit area per unit
temperature difference.
The thermal conductivity of a material is a measure of the ability of
the material to conduct heat. Thermal conductors have high value
and insulators have low values of k. 10
Fig. simple experimental
set up to determine
thermal conductivity

Fig. The range of thermal conductivity of various materials at

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room temperature.
fig. thermal conductivity of a substance varies
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with temperature.
 Convection
0 Convection is the mode of energy transfer between a solid surface
and the adjacent liquid or gas that is in motion.
0 Consider the cooling of a hot block by blowing cool air over its top
surface
0 Energy is first transferred to the air layer
adjacent to the block by conduction. This
energy is then carried away from the surface
by convection, that is, by the combined
effects of conduction within the air that is
due to random motion of air molecules and
the bulk or macroscopic motion of the air
that removes the heated air near the surface
and replaces it by the cooler air.
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 Convection
0 There are two types of convection depending
on the cause of flow of the fluid;
0 Forced convection; flow caused by external
means, like pump, fan etc.
0 Unforced/natural convection; caused by
natural means like buoyancy force arising from
density difference caused by temperature
difference of the fluid.
Heat transfer processes that involve change of
phase of a fluid are also considered to be
convection because of the fluid motion induced
during the process, such as the rise of the vapor
bubbles during boiling or the fall of the liquid
droplets during condensation.
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 Convection
0 The convection heat transfer is given by the Newton’s law of
cooling as; h As (Ts T∞) in watts …… eq.4.1
where; h is the convection heat transfer coefficient
As heat transfer surface area
Ts surface temperature
T∞ temperature of free stream of fluid
0 In terms of heat flux the Newton’s law of cooling can be
written as;
q’’ = h (TsT∞)…. …. W/

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 Convection
0 The convection heat transfer
coefficient h is not a property of the
fluid.
0 It is an experimentally determined
parameter whose value depends on all
the variables influencing convection
such as the surface geometry, the
nature of fluid motion, the properties
of the fluid, and the bulk fluid velocity.

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 Radiation
0 Radiation is the energy emitted by matter in the form of
electromagnetic waves (or photons) as a result of the
changes in the electronic configurations of the atoms or
molecules.
0 Thermal radiation is a form of radiation emitted by bodies
because of their temperature.
0 All bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal
radiation.
0 Radiation is a volumetric phenomenon, and all solids, liquids,
and gases emit, absorb, or transmit radiation to varying
degrees.
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 Radiation
0 Usually thermal radiation in solids is considered surface
phenomena for solids that are opaque to thermal radiation
such as metals, wood, and rocks since the radiation emitted by
the interior regions of such material can never reach the
surface, and the radiation incident on such bodies is usually
absorbed within a few microns from the surface.
0 The maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted from a
surface at an absolute temperature Ts (in K or R) is given by
the Stefan–Boltzmann law as
emitted,max = s (W).. eq.5.1
Where is called the Boltzmann constant
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 Radiation
0 The idealized surface that emits radiation at this
maximum rate is called a blackbody, and the
radiation emitted by a blackbody is called
blackbody radiation. The radiation emitted by
other surfaces is given by;
emitted = s (W).. eq.6.1

where is called emissivity of the surface,

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 Radiation
0 Another important radiation property of a surface is its
absorptivity , which is the fraction of the radiation energy
incident on a surface that is absorbed by the surface.
0 its value
0 A blackbody absorbs the entire radiation incident on it. i.e.

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 Radiation
0 Kirchhoff’s law of radiation states that the emissivity and the
absorptivity of a surface at a given temperature and
wavelength are equal.

7.1

0 We can rewrite eq. 7.1 as

… eq.8.1

0 Where ;
2 2
h 𝑟𝑎𝑑 =𝜖𝜎 ( 𝑇 𝑠 + 𝑇 𝑠𝑢𝑟 ) +( 𝑇 𝑠 + 𝑇 𝑠𝑢𝑟 )
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 Radiation
0 Radiation heat transfer with presence of air or gas would
take place parallel with conduction or convection (if there is
bulk motion).
0 Thus the total heat transfer is determined by adding the
contributions of both heat transfer mechanisms.
0 This is often done by defining a combined heat transfer
coefficient (hcombined = hconv)
0 Then the total heat transfer rate to or from a surface by
convection and radiation is expressed as

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 Simultaneous heat transfer
mechanism
0 Although there are three mechanisms of heat transfer, a
medium may involve only two of them simultaneously.

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Chapter ends

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