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Geography Lesson Note for

Grade -11

Unit- 6

2024/25 Academic
1

Year
 UNIT SIX

MAJOR GLOBAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL

CHANGES
 6.1. Persistent Environmental changes
Objectives: At the end of this section, you will be
able to:
 describe the nature and characteristics of
persistent environmental changes
 distinguish between the nature and
characteristics of persistent and emerging
environmental changes.
 6.1.1. Habitat Destruction
 Habitat is the subset of physical environmental factors
that permit a particular species to survive and reproduce at
any given point in time.
 The most major modern source of habitat loss,
fragmentation, and biodiversity loss around the planet is
humans landscape modification.
 Humans can alter landscapes and habitats spatially
through five different methods:
Cont.
 Natural occurrences such as floods, volcanic
eruptions, earthquakes, and temperature
shifts, can also change landscapes and cause
habitat destruction.
 The introduction of invasive species into
environments is also a major factor in the
extinction of native species.
 Access to proper habitat has a profound
impact on all organisms’ distribution and
abundance, as well as their survival,
reproduction, and long-term persistence.
Cont.
 Individuals may survive in a deteriorated habitat for a long

time even if they are unable to reproduce. Some types of

habitat degradation take a long time to have an impact on a
particular species.
 For example, the loss of huge trees with cavities is a major

issue in forest and woodland ecosystems all across the

world, threatening many individual species.
 Natural occurrences such as floods, volcanic eruptions,

earthquakes, and temperature shifts, can also change

landscapes and cause habitat destruction.
.
 6.1.2. Agricultural Intensification
Agricultural intensification is the process of
increasing agricultural output per unit of input
(labor, land, time, fertilizer, seed, and feed or
cash).
It was successful in increasing agricultural
productivity by using improved seeds (high
yielding varieties), inputs (high doses of
fertilizers, pesticides, and weedicides), heavy
machinery, and copious water for irrigation with
good soils, but it failed to address some
environmental issues.
Cont.
Opening up natural ecosystems for agriculture reduces

carbon stokes which results in the net removal of nutrients

from available soil stocks, and reduces ecosystem variety;
hence agro-ecosystem productivity and natural resource
integrity are fundamentally enemies.
More land would have been used for agriculture in order

to increase agricultural output, thereby destroying forests,

marshes, and other ecosystems. The way heavy land use
affects on biodiversity in an environment has a strong
relationship with its evolutionary history.
Major Negative Impacts of Agricultural Intensification
 Loss of biodiversity: Monocropping and major
reductions in agricultural diversification have resulted
from the widespread adoption of a few genetically
homogeneous crop varieties (for example, high-yield
rice cultivars and dwarf wheat) across huge areas.
Only 15 crop species and eight livestock species now

provide 90% of all human food.

Many key genetic features that had been bred into

traditional kinds over thousands of years were lost

forever.
Cont.
Reduction of soil quality: Increased reliance on
synthetic fertilizers rather than natural fertilizers has
lowered soil quality. Furthermore, nitrate pollution of
water bodies causes nitrogen fertilizer leaching.
Pesticide hazard: Pesticides stay in soil, air,
surface, and groundwater for long periods, poisoning
them. They make their way up the food chain and
end up in higher organisms (bio-magnification).
Pesticide exposure causes cancer in animals over

time (for example, chlorinated hydrocarbons).

Cont.
Soil salinization: Intensification of water used for

irrigation has led to soil salinization, resulting in land

toxicity due to the accumulation of sodium ions in soil
solution that adversely affects plant growth.
Increase in pests and disease: Indiscriminate use of

pesticides was adopted to manage the increased pests

and disease problems in crops due to mono-cropping.
Soil compaction: Using heavy farm equipment for

sowing, fertilizing, spraying pesticides and herbicides,

and harvesting can compact the soil.
Cont.
Due to long-term nutrient mining and soil organic

carbon (SOC) depletion, intensively used cropland in a

densely populated area in Sub-Saharan Africa is
characterized by poor health. Furthermore, feeding
zero-grazing cattle with fodder and crop residues
reduces nutrient replenishment at the plot level.
Low yield in farmers’ fields is due to

 significant depletion of soil nutrients

 unsuitable land management techniques

 excessive soil erosion, and

 unaffordable agricultural inputs.

Cont.
Agricultural intensification recommended in agriculture if

properly applied.
Improved fertilizer and water use efficiency through plant

and animal breeding programs, as well as the deployment

of integrated soil and pest management strategies, could
lead to sustainable agricultural intensification.
Agroforestry provides additional ecosystem services for

sustainably boosting regional food security compared to

monoculture agricultural systems.
There is a need to strike a balance between rising food

demands and biodiversity preservation

6.1.3. Overexploitation of Resources
Over-exploitation occurs when natural resources are

harvested at an excessive rate without appropriate

attention to regeneration.
Continued overexploitation has the potential to deplete

stocks rapidly and face economic or ecological

extinction.
Humans are not the only ones who overexploit natural

flora and animals; introduced predators and herbivores

can also do so. Because overexploitation is such a broad
notion, it may be more acceptable to employ specific
concepts. For instance, instead of overexploitation,
Cont.
Overfishing occurs when a fish stock has been fished

down below the size that on average would support the

long-term maximum sustainable yield of the fishery.
Overgrazing is the situation where land is grazed by
large stocks above the carrying capacity of the grazing
land
Over-logging in forest management Forests are exploited

or over-logged when they are logged at a rate faster than

reforestation takes place. Some species may go extinct
because of the changes in the living conditions of
animals as a result of forest overexploitation
Cont.
Over-drafting: occurs if a water resource, such as the

Ogallala aquifer is mined or extracted at a rate that

exceeds the recharge rate at a rate that exceeds the
practical sustained yield.
 An aquifer that has been exploited is said to be over

drafted or depleted. Hence, when sustainable

ecosystem protection is required for rivers, streams,
and lakes since recharge usually comes from them.
The exploitation of minerals has become easier, and

humans are digging deeper to access different ore

due to the advancements in technology in the
contemporary era.
Cont.
There has been an increase in the exploitation of

minerals, such as phosphorus, gasoline, copper, and

zinc, and their production is estimated to decline in the
next decades.
Oil mining continues to rise due to the increase in the

number of engines that use petroleum thereby

magnifying its depletion.
The adverse effects of oil depletion include

 fall in business,

 high cost of living in developing countries, and

 uncertainty in the transport sector.

6.1.4. Invasive Alien Species
Invasive alien species include animals, plants,

and microbes that infiltrate and invade

ecosystems beyond their historic range.
They are invaders, outstanding competitors, non

natives, exotics, invasive, expand their

geographic ranges, nuisance species, and split
into multiple species.
Some species, such as the rose, modify leaves

into thorns, while another plant species might

develop fruit only at the top of its canopy, out of
reach of a non-climbing predator.
6.1.4.1. Causes of invasive species expansion

The proliferation of invasive species is often

exacerbated by climate change.
Flooding is a type of disturbance that disrupts the soil

profile and denudes the surface of vegetation and cause

a new invasive aquatic or wetland plant invasion.
Invasive plant species love disturbance because it

provides an opportunity for the establishment.

 Flooding has also been used to a limited extent to

control aquatic and wetland invasive plants. In water

bodies where the level can be regulated, weeds can be
submerged
Cont.
 6.1.4.2. Habitat basis classification of invasive species

Invasive species can be classified according to where they grow.

 Most species are terrestrial and others are limited to the

aquatic environment. Some weeds only infest a particular crop

or cropping system, complex plant communities, or growing
conditions.
A. Terrestrial invasive species
Phenotypic plasticity describes the variance between
individual plants of the same species that are grown in different
conditions.
 The mayapple (Podophyllum peltatum), a herbaceous perennial

that grows in rich woodlands, “decides” whether a node will

sprout a vegetative or sexual shoot two years before it appears
above ground
Cont.

Purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) in the desert,

for example, can respond physically to its immediate

surroundings; even a desert can have a day of cold
rain. This is not always a permanent genetic
difference like mutation or adaptation, but rather a
transitory change that occurs within the individual
plant’s life cycle.
Variations in the nature and placement of new organs

are the most common changes. To acclimatize to

lower light levels, one structural modification is to
elongate leaf morphology.
B. Aquatic invasive species
 They grow enormously year after year with no limits,

causing ecosystems to become unstable and native birds no

longer choose to live there.
 They pose a threat to freshwater supplies and are generally

more aggressive. As a result, a biologically diversified plant

ecosystem has given way to a monoculture of one invading
species.
 They have been categorized further as floating, emergent,

and submerged based on their location in the aqueous

environment.
 Floating weeds: rest upon the water surface, and their

roots hang freely on the water or sometimes attach to the

bottom of shallow ponds or streams.
Cont.
Emergent species are plants that grow in natural
marshlands and can be found around the shorelines of
ponds and in the coastal zone of lakes.
They generate larger stems or other support structures in

response to the water level.

Emergent species are always rooted in very damp soil and

stand upright. However, as the water level in a lake or pond

rises, emerging species must develop more support tissue.
Eventually, buoyancy gives floating-leaved species like
waterlines a competitive advantage because they are not
forced to build more structures when water depth changes.
Cont.
 Mangroves are emergent invasive species that live in

saline water and must deal with the problem of salt in the
environment in tropical and subtropical locations.
 The mangrove’s competitive adaption is to have its roots

above water to obtain oxygen. In fine, frequently wet muck,

there is very little oxygen accessible. Roots grow upward
above the mud, allowing them to breathe.
 Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) is aquatic
perennial that develops rosettes of thick, spongy leaves.
 It’s native to South America, but now found on every

continent except Antarctica, and its distribution is likely to

expand as the temperature warms.
Cont.
The plants have fibrous and dark roots beneath

the water level.

A horizontal stem known as a stolon connects

the rosettes at the waterline. The hyacinth

deoxygenates rivers, killing fish populations,
and reducing residents’ income and food
supply.
Submerged weeds: grow completely
underwater although a few floating stems or
leaves may exist on the water surface
6.1.4.3. Ecological classification of invasive plants
 They are often classified using ecological categories related
to population behavior and have four phases of invasion
1.The introduction results from dispersed weeds arriving at
a site beyond their previous geographical range and
establishing populations of adult plants. Transportation
species become common in an area.
2.Naturalization: the species establishes new self-sustaining
populations, disperses widely, and integrates into the local
flora. Abiotic variables (such as high temperature, high PH,
high salinity, NO3-, or NH4+) determine whether an
introduced species can survive and reproduce in the new
environment.
3.Colonization: plants in the founding population reproduce
and multiply to form a self-sustaining colony. Alien organisms
compete for resources by growing quickly and efficiently.
4.Dispersal is the fourth step of dispersal and establishment
in new places, and it is determined by dispersal ability,
dispersal vectors, and habitat connectedness.
Cont.
 The pace of dissemination can be determined by kinetic
production, tolerance to low P and N availability, relatively high
salt tolerance, sea currents, and strong shipping activity.
 During the absence of the species, low-cost prevention is

essential. A small number of localized invading species can be

eradicated. When there is a rapid rise in distribution and
abundance, containment is conceivable but eradication is
unlikely.
 When invasive species are widespread and prolific, long-term

control at a significant cost targeted at population suppression

and facility and resource protection is an alternative. With time,
the contaminated area and management expenses expand
rapidly.
Cont.
 What are the major impacts of invasive plants?

 biodiversity loss,

 species extinction, and

 the endangerment of natural ecosystems.

 They cause native insects, birds, and other species to lose

habitat and food supplies.

 Disrupts normal ecological processes such as plant
community succession, as well as native plant-animal
connections such as pollination, seed dissemination, and
host-plant relationships
 They may also endanger human health.
6.2. POVERTY – ENVIRONMENT NEXUS
Objectives : At the end of this section, you will be
able to:
outline the connection between poverty and

environment
recognize the cause-effects relationship between

land degradation, deforestation, and poverty, and

be familiar with the land management options to

substantially reduce land degradation in your

local environment.
 “Poverty” is a multidimensional concept that
Cont.
 “Environment” represents natural resources including

renewable and nonrenewable.

 Poverty-environment nexus is a set of mutually
reinforcing relationships between poverty and
environmental harm.
Poverty and environmental degradation make a “vicious

cycle,”
Poverty leads many impoverished people to overexploit

and degrade the resources on which they rely to exist day

to day.
This results in environmental degradation, which
exacerbates the scope and depth of poverty.
Cont.
Rising poverty leads to rising environmental
damage, and so the poor and the environment’s
situations become increasingly degraded.
Poverty-environment linkages are dynamic and
context-specific, reflecting the geographic
location, scale, and the economic, social, and
cultural characteristics of individuals,
households, and social groups.
Addressing the issue of poverty requires a good
understating of the interactions of the poor with
their environment.
 Poverty-environment mainstreaming aims at
achieving the best balance between
environmental preservation and poverty
reduction for the benefit of the poor and long-
term environmental sustainability
6.2.1. Poverty and land degradation
“Land degradation” is a persistent decline in land
conditions resulting in a long-term reduction or
loss of the biodiversity and ecosystem function
and services, the productivity of land, its
ecological complexity, and human values, caused
by direct and indirect human-induced processes.
Major components of land degradation
Soil degradation
biological degradation
vegetation alterations in natural or semi-natural
ecosystems, and
water resources degradation.
Land degradation affects people and ecosystems
throughout the planet and is both affected by
climate change and contributes to it.
Cont.
 The relationship between poverty and land degradation is

complex.
 Land degradation is caused by both impoverished and non-

poor households. Soils in poor countries’ humid tropics are

poor, leached, and quickly exhausted, resulting in low yields.
 The soil resource is being depleted due to water erosion,

exhaustion, and soil deterioration caused by over cropping,

pollution, salt deposition, and overuse of chemical
fertilizers.
 Soil erosion caused by torrential rain is more likely to occur

where natural vegetation cover has been destroyed for

farming or where animals have been overgrazed.
Cont.
 Land degradation management include:

 soil management,(managing soil runoff, pH, salinization, and

compaction.)
 vegetation management, (Preventing overgrazing, improving

cropland management, reducing forest cover loss, maintaining

tree stocking density, and maintaining tree species diversity)
 water management, (preventing over-extraction and reducing

aquifer and surface water depletion, as well as managing

landslides and flooding) and
 integrated options (Management of biodiversity loss, dust

storms, invasive species spread, pollution, urbanization,

wetlands, and wildlife corridors are all integrated choices.)
6.2.2. Poverty and deforestation
 “Deforestation” is the conversion of forest to non-forest land and

can result in land degradation

 Poverty causes deforestation; poor people deforest but so do the

rich. Added income may not deter poor people from deforestation.
 Deforestation causes poverty depending on who does it and why,

deforestation can destroy or create assets for poor people.

 The impact of deforestation on access to forest goods and services

particularly important to poor households is negative.

 To achieve a balanced linkage between forest preservation and

poverty reduction for the benefit of the poor and long-term

environmental sustainability, forest strategy and operational
policy have three interdependent parts.
Cont.
 The first is harnessing the potential of forests to reduce poverty

through strengthening the rights of people especially the

marginalized groups to forests and fostering their participation
in forest management. Poverty could be reduced by promoting
sustainable forestry, community forestry, and agroforestry.
 The second is integrating forests into sustainable economic

development strategies by improving forest governance and

introducing legal and institutional reforms; and encouraging
investments that catalyze the production of forest products,
including environmental services.
 The third is protecting local and global environment values

through establishing protected areas, improving forest

management in other areas, and developing markets and finance
for international public goods such as biodiversity and carbon
sequestration.
 6.3. ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION AND SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
At the end of this unit, you will be able to: explain

the ongoing global efforts to avert environmental

degradation and then ensure sustainable
development

6.3.1. Environmental Degradation

“Environmental degradation” is the deterioration of

the environment through the destruction of
ecosystems, habitat destruction, the extinction of
wildlife, pollution, and depletion of resources such as
quality of air, water, and soil.
 Type of Environmental Degradation
A. Soil degradation is the degradation of soil
quality due to poor farming practices, excessive
use of fertilizers and pesticides.
B. Water degradation is the pollution of water
quality as a result of trash dumped in oceans,
illegal dumping, and disposal of large amounts
of industrial waste into nearby surface water.
C. Atmospheric degradation includes the air
degradation, particle pollution, and the
depletion of ozone layer due to increased
demand for material goods and consumption
levels of world population.
D. Other kinds of pollution, including noise and
light pollutions
Causes of Environmental Degradation
Land disturbance: land damage is the basic cause of
environmental degradation.

Pollution: pollution of the air, water, lands and noise are the
harmful causes of environmental degradation.

Overpopulation: causes land to be overused, reduces soil cover

and soil fertility, vegetation cover and productivity, and setting the
preconditions for catastrophic failure of production when the next
drought arrives.

Landfills: A large amount of waste disposed into the landfills

causes’ environmental degradation. Leaks in landfills result in
significant soil pollution, and a bad smell of landfills pose a great
risk to the health of the environment and the people who live
there.
Cont.

Deforestation: Land clearance is the first and

perhaps the most irreversible form of

environmental degradation. E.g. In the tropics
once the forest biomass is cleared, immediate
economic and social consequences are severe.
Exposed soils erode rapidly, subject to declining
fertility, and often contributing to flooding and
siltation of rivers and dams.
Illegal dumping waste into rivers, lakes or

ocean can cause pollution of water that in turn

Cont.
Waste disposed into forests and soils can
contaminate the soil which also leads to ground
water contamination.
Natural causes, including earthquakes, tidal

moves, storms, and wildfires can crush to nearby

animals and plants group to the point where they
can no longer survive in those areas.
Effects of environmental degradation
Impact on human health: Areas exposed to

toxic air pollutants can cause respiratory

problems, such as pneumonia and asthma.
Loss of biodiversity: environmental degradation

due to deforestation, global warming,

overpopulation, and pollution results in loss of
biodiversity.
Depletion of ozone layer as a result of the

presence of chlorofluorocarbons and hydro

chloro-fluorocarbons in the atmosphere.
Cont.
Atmospheric changes: Environmental degradation

can alter some of the natural process such as the

water cycle and the normal processes of animal and
plant activities.
Scarcity of natural resources: over-exploitation of

natural resources, pollution, and deforestation can

contribute to the scarcity of resources particularly to
arable land, water, genetic resources, medicinal
plants, and food crops. Environmental degradation has
a direct link with long-term food shortage and famine.
6.3.2 sustainable development at a
solution to environmental degradation
“Environmental sustainability” refers to
maintaining essential ecological processes and
life-support systems (such as soil regeneration
and protection, the recycling of nutrients, and the
cleansing of waters), preserving genetic diversity
(the range of genetic material found in the
world’s organisms), and ensuring the sustainable
utilization of species and ecosystems, on which
human survival and development depend.
Cont.
 Environmental degradation is a central issue in sustainable

development. Environmental protection through

 stopping deforestation,

 government regulation,

 controlling illegal dumping,

 recycling and reducing wastes,

 avoiding plastic waste, and

 environmental education

 Environmental protection is an imperative solution to

sustain the quality of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.

Cont.
 Adapting for sustainability is the most basic response to
environmental degradation. The livelihood of people in highly
variable environments tends to exhibit considerable self-reliance
and flexibility, as well as a high degree of careful adaptation to
local environmental resources and environmental change.
 Diverse crop varieties, diverse cropping systems, and integrated

management of crops and livestock are important adapting

mechanisms for sustainable production. Besides, conserving the
earth’s vitality and diversity, improving the quality of life,
reducing non-renewable resource depletion, and developing
environmentally-friendly behavior are internationally accepted
principles of sustainable development.
Unit Review