Database Principles:

Fundamentals of Design,
Implementation, and Management
Tenth Edition

Chapter 6
Procedural Language SQL and
Advanced SQL
 Objectives

• In this chapter, you will learn:

– How to use the advanced SQL JOIN operator
syntax
– About the different types of subqueries and
correlated queries
– How to use SQL functions to manipulate dates,
strings, and other data
– About the relational set operators UNION,
UNION ALL, INTERSECT, and MINUS

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 Objectives (cont’d.)
– How to create and use views and updatable
views
– How to create and use triggers and stored
procedures
– How to create embedded SQL

3
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 SQL Join Operators

• Join operation merges rows from two tables

and returns the rows with one of the following:
– Have common values in common columns
• Natural join
– Meet a given join condition
• Equality or inequality
– Have common values in common columns or
have no matching values
• Outer join
• Inner join: only returns rows meeting criteria
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 Cross Join

• Performs relational product of two tables

– Also called Cartesian product
• Syntax:
SELECT column-list FROM table1 CROSS JOIN
table2
• Perform a cross join that yields specified
attributes

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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Natural Join

• Returns all rows with matching values in the

matching columns
– Eliminates duplicate columns
• Used when tables share one or more common
attributes with common names
• Syntax:
SELECT column-list FROM table1 NATURAL
JOIN table2

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 JOIN USING Clause

• Returns only rows with matching values in the

column indicated in the USING clause
• Syntax:
SELECT column-list FROM table1 JOIN table2
USING (common-column)
• JOIN USING operand does not require table
qualifiers
–Oracle returns error if table name is specified

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 JOIN ON Clause

• Used when tables have no common attributes

• Returns only rows that meet the join condition
– Typically includes equality comparison
expression of two columns
• Syntax:
SELECT column-list FROM table1 JOIN table2
ON join-condition

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 Outer Joins

• Returns rows matching the join condition

• Also returns rows with unmatched attribute
values for tables to be joined
• Three types
– Left
– Right
– Full
• Left and right designate order in which tables
are processed
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 Outer Joins (cont’d.)

• Left outer join

– Returns rows matching the join condition
– Returns rows in left side table with unmatched
values
– Syntax: SELECT column-list FROM table1 LEFT
[OUTER] JOIN table2 ON join-condition
• Right outer join
– Returns rows matching join condition
– Returns rows in right side table with unmatched
values
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 Outer Joins (cont’d.)

• Full outer join

– Returns rows matching join condition
– Returns all rows with unmatched values in either
side table
– Syntax:
SELECT column-list
FROM table1 FULL [OUTER] JOIN table2
ON join-condition

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 12
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Subqueries and Correlated Queries
• Often necessary to process data based on other
processed data
• Subquery is a query inside a query, normally
inside parentheses
• First query is the outer query
– Inside query is the inner query
• Inner query is executed first
• Output of inner query is used as input for outer
query
• Sometimes referred to as a nested query
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 WHERE Subqueries

• Most common type uses inner SELECT

subquery on right side of WHERE comparison
– Requires a subquery that returns only one single
value
• Value generated by subquery must be of
comparable data type
• Can be used in combination with joins

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 IN Subqueries

• Used when comparing a single attribute to a list

of values

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 HAVING Subqueries

• HAVING clause restricts the output of a

GROUP BY query
– Applies conditional criterion to the grouped rows

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 Multirow Subquery Operators:
ANY and ALL
• Allows comparison of single value with a list of
values using inequality comparison
• “Greater than ALL” equivalent to “greater than
the highest in list”
• “Less than ALL” equivalent to “less than lowest”
• Using equal to ANY operator equivalent to IN
operator

17
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 FROM Subqueries

• Specifies the tables from which the data will be

drawn
• Can use SELECT subquery in the FROM
clause
– View name can be used anywhere a table is
expected

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 Attribute List Subqueries

• SELECT statement uses attribute list to indicate

columns to project resulting set
– Columns can be attributes of base tables
– Result of aggregate function
• Attribute list can also include subquery
expression: inline subquery
– Must return one single value
• Cannot use an alias in the attribute list

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 Correlated Subqueries

• Subquery that executes once for each row in

the outer query
• Correlated because inner query is related to the
outer query
– Inner query references column of outer
subquery
• Can also be used with the EXISTS special
operator

20
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 SQL Functions
• Generating information from data often requires
many data manipulations
• SQL functions are similar to functions in
programming languages
• Functions always use numerical, date, or string
value
• Value may be part of a command or attribute in
a table
• Function may appear anywhere in an SQL
statement
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Date and Time Functions

• All SQL-standard DBMSs support date and

time functions
• Date functions take one parameter and return a
value
• Date/time data types are implemented
differently by different DBMS vendors
• ANSI SQL standard defines date data types,
but not how data types are stored

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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Numeric Functions

• Grouped in different ways

– Algebraic, trigonometric, logarithmic, etc.
• Do not confuse with aggregate functions
– Aggregate functions operate over sets
– Numeric functions operate over single row
• Numeric functions take one numeric parameter
and return one value

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 24
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 String Functions

• String manipulations are the most used

functions in programming
• String manipulation function examples:
– Concatenation
– Printing in uppercase
– Finding length of an attribute

25
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 Conversion Functions

• Take a value of given data type and convert it to

the equivalent value in another data type
• Oracle conversion functions:
– TO_CHAR: takes a date value, converts to
character string
– TO_DATE: takes character string representing a
date, converts it to actual date in Oracle format
• SQL Server uses CAST and CONVERT
functions

26
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 Relational Set Operators

• UNION
• INTERSECT
• MINUS
• Work properly if relations are union-compatible
– Names of relation attributes must be the same
and their data types must be identical

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 UNION
• Combines rows from two or more queries without
including duplicate rows
– Example:
SELECT CUS_LNAME, CUS_FNAME,
CUS_INITIAL, CUS_AREACODE,
FROM CUSTOMER
UNION
SELECT CUS_LNAME, CUS_FNAME,
CUS_INITIAL, CUS_AREACODE,
FROM CUSTOMER_2
• Can be used to unite more than two queries
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 UNION ALL
• Produces a relation that retains duplicate rows
– Example query:
SELECT CUS_LNAME, CUS_FNAME,
CUS_INITIAL, CUS_AREACODE,
FROM CUSTOMER
UNION ALL
SELECT CUS_LNAME, CUS_FNAME,
CUS_INITIAL, CUS_AREACODE,
FROM CUSTOMER_2;
• Can be used to unite more than two queries

29
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 INTERSECT
• Combines rows from two queries, returning only
the rows that appear in both sets
• Syntax: query INTERSECT query
– Example query:
SELECT CUS_LNAME, CUS_FNAME,
CUS_INITIAL, CUS_AREACODE,
FROM CUSTOMER
INTERSECT
SELECT CUS_LNAME, CUS_FNAME,
CUS_INITIAL, CUS_AREACODE,
FROM CUSTOMER_2
Database Systems, 10th Edition 30
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 31
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 MINUS
• Combines rows from two queries
– Returns only the rows that appear in the first set but
not in the second
• Syntax: query MINUS query
– Example:
SELECT CUS_LNAME, CUS_FNAME,
CUS_INITIAL, CUS_AREACODE, FROM
CUSTOMER
MINUS
SELECT CUS_LNAME, CUS_FNAME,
CUS_INITIAL, CUS_AREACODE, FROM
CUSTOMER_2

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 Syntax Alternatives
• IN and NOT IN subqueries can be used in place of
INTERSECT
• Example:
SELECT CUS_CODE FROM CUSTOMER
WHERE CUS_AREACODE = ‘615’ AND
CUS_CODE IN (SELECT
DISTINCT CUS_CODE
FROM
INVOICE);

33
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 Virtual Tables: Creating a View

• View
– Virtual table based on a SELECT query
• Base tables
• Tables on which the view is based
• CREATE VIEW viewname AS SELECT query
• Relational view special characteristics

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 Updatable Views

• Batch update routine pools multiple

transactions into a single batch
– Update master table field in a single operation
• Updatable view is a view that can be used to
update attributes in the base tables
• Not all views are updatable
– GROUP BY expressions or aggregate functions
cannot be used
– Cannot use set operators
– Most restrictions are based on use of JOINs
35
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 Oracle Sequences

• MS Access AutoNumber data type fills a

column with unique numeric values
• Oracle sequences
– Independent object in the database
– Named, used anywhere a value expected
– Not tied to a table or column
– Generate numeric values that can be assigned
to any column in any table
– Created and deleted at any time

36
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 37
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Procedural SQL

• SQL does not support conditional execution

• Isolate critical code
– All applications access shared code
– Better maintenance and logic control
• Persistent stored module (PSM) is a block of
code containing:
– Standard SQL statements
– Procedural extensions
– Stored and executed at the DBMS server
38
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 Procedural SQL (cont’d.)

• Procedural SQL (PL/SQL) enables you to:

– Store procedural code and SQL statements in
database
– Merge SQL and traditional programming
constructs
• Procedural code executed by DBMS when
invoked by end user
– Anonymous PL/SQL blocks and triggers
– Stored procedures and PL/SQL functions

39
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 40
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Triggers
• Procedural SQL code automatically invoked by
RDBMS on data manipulation event
• Trigger definition:
– Triggering timing: BEFORE or AFTER
– Triggering event: INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE
– Triggering level:
• Statement-level trigger
• Row-level trigger
– Triggering action
• DROP TRIGGER trigger_name
41
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 Stored Procedures
• Named collection of procedural and SQL
statements
• Advantages
– Substantially reduce network traffic and increase
performance
• No transmission of individual SQL statements over
network
– Reduce code duplication by means of code
isolation and code sharing
• Minimize chance of errors and cost of application
development and maintenance
42
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 PL/SQL Processing with Cursors

• Cursor: special construct in procedural SQL to

hold data rows returned by SQL query
• Implicit cursor: automatically created when SQL
returns only one value
• Explicit cursor: holds the output of an SQL
statement that may return two or more rows
• Cursor-style processor retrieves data from
cursor one row at a time
– Current row is copied to PL/SQL variables

43
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 PL/SQL Stored Functions

• Named group of procedural and SQL

statements that returns a value
• Syntax:
CREATE FUNCTION function_name(argument
IN data-type, …) RETURN data- type [IS]
BEGIN
PL/SQL statements;
…
RETURN (value or expression);
END;
44
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Embedded SQL

• Key differences between SQL and procedural

languages:
– Run-time mismatch
• SQL is executed one instruction at a time
• Host language typically runs at client side in its
own memory space
– Processing mismatch
• Host language processes one data element at a
time
– Data type mismatch
45
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 Embedded SQL (cont’d.)

• Embedded SQL framework defines:

– Standard syntax to identify embedded SQL code
within host language
– Standard syntax to identify host variables
– Communication area exchanges status and
error information between SQL and host
language

46
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 47
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Embedded SQL (cont’d.)

• Static SQL
– Embedded SQL in which programmer uses
predefined SQL statements and parameters
• End users of programs are limited to actions that
were specified in application programs
– SQL statements will not change while
application is running

48
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 Embedded SQL (cont’d.)

• Dynamic SQL
– SQL statement is not known in advance, but
instead is generated at run time
– Program can generate SQL statements at run-
time that are required to respond to ad hoc
queries
– Attribute list and condition are not known until
end user specifies them
– Tends to be much slower than static SQL
– Requires more computer resources
49
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 Summary
• Operations that join tables are classified as inner
joins and outer joins
• Natural join returns all rows with matching values
in the matching columns
– Eliminates duplicate columns
• Subqueries and correlated queries process data
based on other processed data
• Most subqueries are executed in serial fashion
• SQL functions are used to extract or transform
data
50
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 Summary (cont’d.)

• Relational set operators combine output of two

queries to generate new relation
• Oracle sequences may be used to generate
values to be assigned to a record
• PL/SQL can be used to create triggers, stored
procedures, and PL/SQL functions
• A stored procedure is a named collection of
SQL statements

51
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 Summary (cont’d.)

• When SQL statements return more than one

value inside the PL/SQL code, cursor is needed
• Embedded SQL uses SQL statements within an
application programming language

52
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