Modulation, coding, compression and encryption techniques

1 Analogue modulation: time domain (waveforms), frequency

domain (spectra), amplitude modulation (am), frequency
modulation (fm), phase modulation (pm)

2 Digital modulation: waveforms and spectra, Frequency Shift

Keying (FSK), Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) [including
Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK)], Quadrature
Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) [including π/4QPSK]

3 Error coding: General principles of block, convolutional, parity,

interleaving

4 Compression: Regular Pulse Excitation – Linear Predictive

Coding – Long Term Prediction (RPE-LPC-LTP)
 Overview

Communication is the transfer of information from one place to

another.

This should be done

- as efficiently as possible
- with as much fidelity/reliability as possible
- as securely as possible

Communication System: Components/subsystems act together to

accomplish information transfer/exchange.
 Elements of a Communication
System

Input Output
message message

Input Output
Transducer Transducer
Transmitter Channel Receiver
Input Transducer: The message produced by a source must be
converted by a transducer to a form suitable for the particular type of
communication system.
Example: In electrical communications, speech waves are converted
by a microphone to voltage variation.

Transmitter: The transmitter processes the input signal to produce a

signal suits to the characteristics of the transmission channel.
Signal processing for transmission almost always involves
modulation and may also include coding. In addition to modulation,
other functions performed by the transmitter are amplification,
filtering and coupling the modulated signal to the channel.
Channel: The channel can have different forms: The atmosphere (or free
space), coaxial cable, fiber optic, waveguide, etc.
The signal undergoes some amount of degradation from noise, interference and
distortion

Receiver: The receiver’s function is to extract the desired signal from the
received signal at the channel output and to convert it to a form suitable for the
output transducer.
Other functions performed by the receiver: amplification (the received signal
may be extremely weak), demodulation and filtering.

Output Transducer: Converts the electric signal at its input into the form
desired by the system user.
Example: Loudspeaker, personal computer (PC), tape recorders.
 To be transmitted, Information (Data)
must be transformed to electromagnetic
signals.
Electromagnetic Waves

.
Electromagnetic Waves

.
 Electromagnetic Spectrum

http://www.edumedia-sciences.com/a185_l2-transverse-
electromagnetic-wave.html
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Wave length Frequency Transmission Propagation Representative Frequency
Designations Media Modes Applications

Extra High Satellite,

1 cm Frequency (EHF) Microwave relay, 100 GHz
Wave guide Earth-satellite radar.
Super High
10 cm Frequency (SHF) 10 GHz
Line-of-sight radio
Ultra High Wireless comm.
1m Frequency (UHF) service, 1 GHz
Cellular, pagers, UHF
TV
Very High Coaxial Cable Mobile, Aeronautical,
10m Frequency (VHF) Sky wave radio VHF TV and FM,
mobile radio 100 MHz
High Frequency Amateur radio, Civil
100m (HF) Defense 10 MHz

Medium High AM broadcasting

1 km Frequency (MF) Ground wave 1 MHz
radio
Low Frequency Aeronautical,
10 km (LF) Submarine cable, 100 kHz
Wire pairs
Navigation,
Very Low Transoceanic radio
100km Frequency (VLF) 10 kHz
 1.6 Radio Wave Propagation Modes

1 Ground Wave Propagation

Follows contour of the earth Can Propagate considerable distances
Frequencies up to 2 MHz Example : AM radio
2 Sky Wave Propagation
Signal reflected from ionized layer
of atmosphere. Signal can travel
a number of hops, back and forth
Examples SW radio

3 Line-of-Sight Propagation
Transmitting and receiving antennas
must be within line of sight
example
Satellite communication
Ground communication
 ANALOG AND DIGITAL

Data (Information) can be analog or digital. The term

analog data refers to information that is continuous;
digital data refers to information that has discrete states.
Analog data take on continuous values. Digital data take
on discrete values.

Topics discussed in this section:

Analog and Digital Data

Analog and Digital Signals
Periodic and Nonperiodic Signals
 Data can be analog or digital.
Analog data are continuous and take
continuous values.
Digital data have discrete states and
take discrete values.
 Signals can be analog or digital.
Analog signals can have an infinite
number of values in a range; digital
signals can have only a limited
number of values.
Figure Comparison of analog and digital signals
 In communication systems, we
commonly use periodic analog signals
and nonperiodic digital signals.
 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS

Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or

composite. A simple periodic analog signal, a sine wave,
cannot be decomposed into simpler signals. A composite
periodic analog signal is composed of multiple sine
waves.

Topics discussed in this section:

Sine Wave
Wavelength
Time and Frequency Domain
Composite Signals
Bandwidth
Figure A sine wave
Figure Two signals with the same phase and frequency,
but different amplitudes
Frequency and period are the inverse of
each other.
Figure Two signals with the same amplitude and phase,
but different frequencies
Table Units of period and frequency
 Example

The period of a signal is 100 ms. What is its frequency in

kilohertz?

Solution
First we change 100 ms to seconds, and then we
calculate the frequency from the period (1 Hz = 10 −3
kHz).
Frequency is the rate of change with
respect to time.

Change in a short span of time

means high frequency.

Change over a long span of

time means low frequency.
 If a signal does not change at all, its
frequency is zero.
If a signal changes instantaneously, its
frequency is infinite.
Phase describes the position of the
waveform relative to time 0.
Figure Three sine waves with the same amplitude and frequency,
but different phases
 Example

A sine wave is offset 1/6 cycle with respect to time 0.

What is its phase in degrees and radians?

Solution
We know that 1 complete cycle is 360°. Therefore, 1/6
cycle is
Figure Wavelength and period
Figure The time-domain and frequency-domain plots of a sine wave
 A complete sine wave in the time
domain can be represented by one
single spike in the frequency domain.
Time and frequency domains
Time and frequency domains (continued)
Time and frequency domains (continued)
 Example

The frequency domain is more compact and

useful when we are dealing with more than one
sine wave. For example, Next Figure shows
three sine waves, each with different amplitude
and frequency. All can be represented by three
spikes in the frequency domain.
Figure The time domain and frequency domain of three sine waves
 A single-frequency sine wave is not
useful in communication systems;
we need to send a composite signal, a
signal made of many simple sine waves.
Example Amplitude modulation
Figure AM band allocation
Figure Frequency modulation
Figure FM band allocation
Figure Phase modulation
 According to Fourier analysis, any
composite signal is a combination of
simple sine waves with different
frequencies, amplitudes, and phases.
 If the composite signal is periodic, the
decomposition gives a series of signals
with discrete frequencies;
if the composite signal is nonperiodic,
the decomposition gives a combination
of sine waves with continuous
frequencies.
 Figure A composite periodic signal

Above Figure shows a periodic composite signal with frequency f.

This type of signal is not typical of those found in data
communications. We can consider it to be three alarm systems, each
with a different frequency. The analysis of this signal can give us a
good understanding of how to decompose signals.
Figure Decomposition of a composite periodic signal in the time and
frequency domains
Square wave
Three harmonics
Adding first three harmonics
Frequency spectrum comparison
A digital signal

A digital signal is a composite signal

with an infinite bandwidth.
 Figure The time and frequency domains of a nonperiodic signal

Above Figure shows a nonperiodic composite signal. It can be the

signal created by a microphone or a telephone set when a word or two
is pronounced. In this case, the composite signal cannot be periodic,
because that implies that we are repeating the same word or words with
exactly the same tone.
The bandwidth of a composite signal is
the difference between the
highest and the lowest frequencies
contained in that signal.
Figure The bandwidth of periodic and nonperiodic composite signals
 Example

If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves

with frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz, what
is its bandwidth? Draw the spectrum, assuming all
components have a maximum amplitude of 10 V.
Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency,
and B the bandwidth. Then

The spectrum has only five spikes, at 100, 300, 500, 700,
and 900 Hz (see next Figure ).
Figure The bandwidth for Example
 Example

A periodic signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest

frequency is 60 Hz. What is the lowest frequency? Draw
the spectrum if the signal contains all frequencies of the
same amplitude.
Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency,
and B the bandwidth. Then

The spectrum contains all integer frequencies. We show

this by a series of spikes (see next Figure ).
Figure The bandwidth for Example
 Example

A nonperiodic composite signal has a bandwidth of 200

kHz, with a middle frequency of 140 kHz and peak
amplitude of 20 V. The two extreme frequencies have an
amplitude of 0. Draw the frequency domain of the
signal.

Solution
The lowest frequency must be at 40 kHz and the highest
at 240 kHz. Next Figure shows the frequency domain
and the bandwidth.
Figure The bandwidth for Example
 Example

An example of a nonperiodic composite signal is the

signal propagated by an AM radio station. Each AM
radio station is assigned a 10-kHz bandwidth. The total
bandwidth dedicated to AM radio ranges from 530 to
1700 kHz.
 Example

Another example of a nonperiodic composite signal is

the signal propagated by an FM radio station. Each FM
radio station is assigned a 200-kHz bandwidth. The total
bandwidth dedicated to FM radio ranges from 88 to 108
MHz.
Analog and Digital Communication
Systems

There are many kinds of information sources, which can be

categorized into two distinct message categories, analog and digital.

an analog communication system should deliver this waveform with

a specified degree of fidelity.

a digital communication system should deliver data with a specified

degree of accuracy in a specified amount of time.
 Comparisons of Digital and Analog
Communication Systems

Digital Communication System Analog Communication System

Advantage : Disadvantages :
 inexpensive digital circuits
 privacy preserved (data encryption)  expensive analog components : L&C
 can merge different data (voice, video and  no privacy
data) and transmit over a common digital  can not merge data from diff. sources
transmission system  no error correction capability
 error correction by coding

Disadvantages : Advantages :

 larger bandwidth  smaller bandwidth

 synchronization problem is relatively  synchronization problem is relatively
difficult easier
Brief Chronology of Communication
Systems

• 1844 Telegraph:
• 1876 Telephony:
• 1904 Radio:
• 1923-1938 Television:
• 1936 Armstrong’s case of FM radio
• 1938-1945 World War II Radar and microwave systems
• 1948-1950 Information Theory and coding. C. E. Shannon
• 1962 Satellite communications begins with Telstar I.
• 1962-1966 High Speed digital communication
• 1972 Motorola develops cellular telephone.