Course Outcome

CO 4 Evaluate the efficiency of Query optimization techniques - K5

LEVEL

CS3391/OOP/IICSE/IIISEM/KG-KiTE
Syllabus
UNIT IV-IMPLEMENTATION TECHNIQUES

RAID – File Organization – Organization of Records in Files – Data

dictionary Storage – Column Oriented Storage– Indexing and Hashing –
Ordered Indices – B+ tree Index Files – B tree Index Files – Static Hashing –
Dynamic Hashing – Query Processing Overview – Algorithms for Selection,
Sorting and join operations – Query optimization using Heuristics - Cost
Estimation.

CS3391/OOP/IICSE/IIISEM/KG-KiTE
FILE ORGANIZATION
 File Organization
• File Organization refers to the logical relationships among various
records that constitute the file, particularly with respect to the means
of identification and access to any specific record.
• In simple terms, Storing the files in a certain order is called File
Organization.
• File Structure refers to the format of the label and data blocks and of
any logical control record.
File Organization
 File Organization
The Objective of File Organization
• It helps in the faster selection of records i.e. it makes the process
faster.
• Different Operations like inserting, deleting, and updating different
records are faster and easier.
• It prevents us from inserting duplicate records via various operations.
• It helps in storing the records or the data very efficiently at a minimal
cost
 File Organization
Types of File Organizations:
• Sequential File Organization
• Heap File Organization
• Hash File Organization
• B+ Tree File Organization
• Clustered File Organization
• ISAM (Indexed Sequential Access Method)
 I. Sequential File Organization
• The easiest method for file Organization is the Sequential method.
• In this method, the file is stored one after another in a sequential
manner.
• There are two ways to implement this method:
1. Pile File Method

2. Sorted File Method

 I. Sequential File Organization
1. Pile File Method
• This method is quite simple, in which we store the records in a sequence
i.e. one after the other in the order in which they are inserted into the
tables.
 I. Sequential File Organization
• Insertion of the new record: Let the R1, R3, and so on up to R5
and R4 be four records in the sequence.
• Here, records are nothing but a row in any table. Suppose a new
record R2 has to be inserted in the sequence, then it is simply
placed at the end of the file.
 I. Sequential File Organization
2. Sorted File Method
• In this method, As the name itself suggests whenever a new record has
to be inserted, it is always inserted in a sorted (ascending or
descending) manner.
• The sorting of records may be based on any primary key or any other
key.
 I. Sequential File Organization
• Insertion of the new record: Let us assume that there is a preexisting
sorted sequence of four records R1, R3, and so on up to R7 and R8.
• Suppose a new record R2 has to be inserted in the sequence, then it
will be inserted at the end of the file and then it will sort the
sequence.
 I. Sequential File Organization
Advantages of Sequential File Organization
• Fast and efficient method for huge amounts of data.
• Simple design.
• Files can be easily stored in magnetic tapes i.e. cheaper storage mechanism.

Disadvantages of Sequential File Organization

• Time wastage as we cannot jump on a particular record that is required, but
we have to move in a sequential manner which takes our time.
• The sorted file method is inefficient as it takes time and space for sorting
records.
 II. Heap File Organization
• Heap File Organization works with data blocks.
• In this method, records are inserted at the end of the file, into the data
blocks.
• No Sorting or Ordering is required in this method.
• If a data block is full, the new record is stored in some other block,
Here the other data block need not be the very next data block, but it
can be any block in the memory.
• It is the responsibility of DBMS to store and manage the new records.
II. Heap File Organization
 II. Heap File Organization
• Insertion of the new record: Suppose we have four records in the heap
R1, R5, R6, R4, and R3, and suppose a new record R2 has to be inserted
in the heap then, since the last data block i.e data block 3 is full it will
be inserted in any of the data blocks selected by the DBMS, let’s say
data block 1.
 II. Heap File Organization
• If we want to search, delete or update data in the heap file Organization we
will traverse the data from the beginning of the file till we get the requested
record.
• Thus if the database is very huge, searching, deleting, or updating the record
will take a lot of time.
Advantages of Heap File Organization
• Fetching and retrieving records is faster than sequential records but only in
the case of small databases.
• When there is a huge number of data that needs to be loaded into
the database at a time, then this method of file Organization is best suited.
Disadvantages of Heap File Organization
• The problem of unused memory blocks.
• Inefficient for larger databases.
 III. Hash File Organization
• Hashing is an efficient technique to directly search the location of
desired data on the disk without using an index structure.
• Data is stored at the data blocks whose address is generated by using a
hash function.
• Data bucket – Data buckets are the memory locations where the
records are stored. These buckets are also considered Units of Storage.
• Hash Function – The hash function is a mapping function that maps all
the sets of search keys to the actual record address.
• Hash Index-The prefix of an entire hash value is taken as a hash index.
Every hash index has a depth value to signify how many bits are used
for computing a hash function
 III. Hash File Organization
Types of Hashing:
• Static Hashing
• Open Hashing
• Closed hashing
• Quadratic probing:
• Double Hashing:
• Dynamic Hashing
 III. Hash File Organization
Static Hashing
• In static hashing, when a search-key value is provided, the hash
function always computes the same address.
• For example, if we want to generate an address for STUDENT_ID = 104
using a mod (5) hash function, it always results in the same bucket
address 4.
• There will not be any changes to the bucket address here.
• Hence a number of data buckets in the memory for this static hashing
remain constant throughout.
 III. Hash File Organization
Open Hashing
• In the Open hashing method, the next available data block is used to
enter the new record, instead of overwriting the older one.
• This method is also called linear probing.
• For example, D3 is a new record that needs to be inserted, the hash
function generates the address as 105. But it is already full.
• So the system searches the next available data bucket, 123, and
assigns D3 to it.
 III. Hash File Organization
Open Hashing
 III. Hash File Organization
Quadratic probing:
• Quadratic probing is very much similar to open hashing or linear
probing.
• Here, The only difference between old and new buckets is linear.
• The quadratic function is used to determine the new bucket address.
Double Hashing:
• Double Hashing is another method similar to linear probing.
• Here the difference is fixed as in linear probing, but this fixed
difference is calculated by using another hash function.
• That’s why the name is double hashing.
 III. Hash File Organization
Dynamic Hashing
• The drawback of static hashing is that it does not expand or shrink
dynamically as the size of the database grows or shrinks.
• In Dynamic hashing, data buckets grow or shrink (added or removed
dynamically) as the records increase or decrease.
• Dynamic hashing is also known as extended hashing.
• In dynamic hashing, the hash function is made to produce a large number of
values.
 III. Hash File Organization
Dynamic Hashing
• For Example, there are three data records D1, D2, and D3.
• The hash function generates three addresses 1001, 0101, and
1010 respectively.
• This method of storing considers only part of this address –
especially only the first bit to store the data. So it tries to load
three of them at addresses 0 and 1.
 IV. B+ File Organization
• B+ tree file organization is the advanced method of an indexed
sequential access method.
• It uses a tree-like structure to store records in File.
• It uses the same concept of key-index where the primary key is used to
sort the records.
• For each primary key, the value of the index is generated and mapped
with the record.
• The B+ tree is similar to a binary search tree (BST), but it can have
more than two children.
• In this method, all the records are stored only at the leaf node.
Intermediate nodes act as a pointer to the leaf nodes. They do not
contain any records.
IV. B+ File Organization
 V. Clustered File Organization
• When the two or more records are stored in the same file, it is known as
clusters.
• These files will have two or more tables in the same data block, and key
attributes which are used to map these tables together are stored only once.
• This method reduces the cost of searching for various records in different
files.
• The cluster file organization is used when there is a frequent need for joining
the tables with the same condition.
• These joins will give only a few records from both tables.
• In the given example, we are retrieving the record for only particular
departments. This method can't be used to retrieve the record for the entire
department.
V. Clustered File Organization
 VI. Indexed sequential access
method (ISAM)
• ISAM method is an advanced sequential file organization.
• In this method, records are stored in the file using the primary key.
• An index value is generated for each primary key and mapped with the
record.
• This index contains the address of the record in the file.
• If any record has to be retrieved based on its index value, then the
address of the data block is fetched and the record is retrieved from
the memory.
VI. Indexed sequential access
method (ISAM)