Chapter two

Linear Measurement
/chain surveying/
 2.1 Introduction
Every surveyor has to measure the horizontal distance between
two points on the surface of the earth.
Measurement of horizontal distance or making linear
measurements is required in chain surveying, traverse surveying,
and other types of surveying.
In surveying the distance between two points means a
horizontal distance.
When slope distances are measured in the field, these are
always reduced to the equivalent horizontal distances for
preparation of map.
There are, in general, three methods of making linear
measurements:
Direct methods.
Optical methods
E.D.M. methods
•In the direct methods, the distance is actually
measured in the field using a tape.
In optical methods, the distance is not actually
measured in the field. Instead It is computed
indirectly.
Electromagnetic Distance measuring (E.D.M)
instruments have been developed quite recently.
These are basically of two types:

Electro optical instruments, which use light waves

for measurement of distance.
Microwave instruments, which use radio waves
for measurement of distance.
Electronic Distance Measurement

Transmitted Energy

Returned Energy
 2.2 Approximate method
• The following approximate methods are commonly
used in reconnaissance surveying for the
measurement of horizontal distances.

1. Pacing: A person can determine the distance walked

by counting the number of paces made.
The distance can be obtained by multiplying the
number of paces by the average length of the paces.
 Pacing

2 3 4
1
1.5 m

= 4x1.5 m
=6m
2. Measuring wheel: A measuring wheel consists of a
wheel mounted on a lower end of rod about 1 m
long through a fork.

Measuring wheel
3. Speedometer:- All automobiles have a speedometer to
indicate the speed and the distance travelled. If the
ground is smooth, the speedometer can be used to
measure the distance.
4. Passometer:- It registers the number of paces the
mechanism operator automatically due to the motion
of the body as the person walks.
5. Pedometer:- It is similar to a passometer but it
registers directly the distance walked and not the
number of paces.
6. Odometer. It is a simple device, which can be attached
to wheel of a bicycle or any such vehicle. It registers
the number of revolutions made by the wheel. The
distance covered is equal to the product of number of
revolutions and the circumference of the wheel.
 2.3 Measuring tapes
– Measuring tapes can be classified
into 5 types depending upon the
material used in their manufacture.
 Linen or cloth tapes.
 Glass-fiber tapes
 Metallic tapes
 Steel tapes
 Invar tape
1. Linen or cloth Tapes. These tapes are made of linen or cloth.
The tape is light and handy but not very accurate. These tapes
are available in length of 10m 20m , 25m and 30m.
2. Glass –fiber taps these tapes are similar to linen and plastic
coated tapes but these are make of glass-fibre. The tapes are
quite flexible, strong and non-conductive.
3. Metallic tapes. These tapes are similar to linen tapes but are
made of water proof fabric or glass fibre in which metallic wires
are interwoven.
4. Steel tapes. The steel tapes are more accurate than metallic
tapes. The steel tapes are made of steel or stainless steel strip.
5. Invar Tapes. Invar tapes are made of an alloy of steel (64%)
and nickel (36%) which has a very low coefficient of thermal
expansion.
• Invar tapes are used for linear measurements of very high
 2.4 Taping field work in chain Surveying
• Direct measurement of distances using a tape/chain
• Used for more accurate measurements
• Graduation are given in m, dm, cm, mm
• Relative accuracy over smooth ground 1:3000- 1:5000
Types:
metallic, steel, wooden, cloth and glass
Instrument for taping/ Accessories:
Plumb bob,
Pegs
range poles,
 chaining pins℗
Ranging: an operation of fixing or locating intermediate points on
straight line
– Direct : when two stations of a line are inter visible to each
other; done by eye or line ranger
– Ranging out lines and working with optical square
– indirect: :
 Direct ranging

A C B

Until the three range polls lie on straight line

 Indirect/Reciprocal ranging
• When two end points joining a line are not inter visible
– Intervening high ground/vertical curve /any obstacle

C D

B
A
 Taping on level ground
• Marking points( intermediate)
– Range poles, pins
• Two men:
– Leader: 0 mark & the pins(10)
• Unwind the tape
• Insert pins
– Follower : the other end, one pin and
• Instructions
• Collect pins
• Tape must be straight and at the same elevation
 50m tape

A B
12.45m
1 no. of 10 pins No. of pins=5

• Distance from the starting point:

– No. of 10 pins = 1 500.00m
– No. of pins = 5 250.00m
– Partial tape length= 12.45m
– Total length 762.45m
• Distance to the starting point:
• Average distance
 Taping on sloping ground
Direct method: Step taping…
Third person: line level/sprit level
 Taping on sloping ground
Direct method: Step taping…
• Breaking tape method (Down hill)
L2
A L1 L3
L4
L5

L6

required (horizontal) distance

B
 Taping on sloping ground
Direct method: Step taping…
• Breaking tape method (Up hill)

L6 L5
B L4
L3
L2

L1

required (horizontal) distance

A
 Indirect measurements

Slope, angle/elevation difference

For example :
= s s = 30.589 m
ance  = 2.5o
) dist
pe H = 1.334 m
(slo H
ed then
as ur
me h = 30.589 cos(2.5)
 h = 30.560 m

horizontal distance = h
Or….
To calculate the horizontal distance : s = 30.589 m
H = 1.334 m
h = s cos or h = (s2 - H2)1/2 then
h = (30.5892 - 1.3342)1/2
h = 30.560 m
 Cont…

C
L2


L1 B D2


D1 = L1 cos θ1
A D1
D2 = L2 cos θ2
Horizontal distance = D = D1 + D2 = Σ Li cosθi
 Measuring and laying off angles with a tape
• Erecting perpendicular
– (3-4-5)n method
– Eg. Using 30m tape
• Measure 9m on the line BC 18 m 15 m mark
• Insert a pin(0 m mark) 3m
• Measure 15 m , mark D D
• Make 3m loop, hold 18 m mark at D
12m 15m
• Put the 30 m mark at B
• Angle at B is right angle 30 m 90o 0m

Eg. Using 20m tape A B 9m C

• 6-8-10
 Measuring and laying off angles with a tape

• Eg. Using 20m tape 12m mark

• 6-8-10
10 m mark
2m
D
8m 10m
20 m mark 90o 0m

A B 6m C
 Passing obstacles,
A. Chaining free/vision obstructed
Hill: reciprocal ranging
B. Vision free, chaining obstructed
I. Ponds (chaining round possible)

A C D B
• where an obstruction (e.g. boulder, tree, etc.)
lies on the measurement line, it will be necessary
to break the tape around the obstacle
 Errors in taping
1. Temperature(+ve or -ve)
2. Sagging (-ve)
3. Tension(+ve or -ve)
4. Scale/standardization/(+ve or -ve)
5. Correction for slope(-ve)
6. Correction to mean sea level (-ve)
 Corrections
a) Temperature(+ve or –ve)
• Expansion/contraction

• where
CT  T  TS L f
•  = Coefficient of linear thermal expansion
E.g steel: 0.0000115 m/(m C)
invar: 0.000001 m/(m C)
 T = Field temperature(C)
 TS = Standardized temp.(C)
 Lf = Measured length (m)
b) Sagging (-ve)
• No matter how large the tensile force ,
– There is catenaries effect ℗
– Measured length will be too large.

2 3
 w Lf
CS  2
24P

where
 w = Weight the tape per unit length (N/m)
 P = Applied tensile force (N)
c) Tension Correction (+ve or –ve)
• Pull with a tension greater/less than the
standard
P  PS L f
CP 
where
AE
P = Applied tensile force (N)
PS = Standardized tensile force (N)
A = Cross sectional area of the tape (m2)
E = Young’s modulus of elasticity (N/m2)
d) Scale /standardization(+ve or –ve)
– Tape is not of “true” length
– Comparing to a standard tape
m
CL  Lf
m
where
m = Nominal length (m)
m = error (m)
Lf = measured length
e). Correction for slope(-ve)
•In surveying it is essential that horizontal lengths
are determined.
•Thus length L measured on the slope must be
reduced to its equivalent plane length Lx cosY.
•The correction to be applied is
Cs= __ h2
2L
f) Correction to mean sea level (-ve)
•In the case of long lines the relationship between
the length measured on the ground and the
equivalent length at mean sea level has to be
considered.
•In the measured length is Lm and the height of the
line above datum is H then the correction to be
applied is
H
C msl  Lm
R
 Exercises on tape corrections
The following information was obtained when
measuring the length of a line by tape suspended in
catenaries under a pull of 134N, the mean temperature
being 160c
If the tape was standardized on the flat under a pull
of 89 N at 200c how long is the line?
Bay Length (m) Difference in level (m)
(inlets)
1 29.898 + 0.382
2 29.950 - 0.234
3 29.883 + 0.271
4 29.901 - 0.075

Cross –sectional area of tape = 3.24mm2

Mass of tape = 0.026 kg/m
Coefficient of linear extension = 0.000 0009/0c
Young’s modulus = 15.5x104MN/m
Mean height of line above mean sea level = 53.78m
Radius of Earth = 6367 KM.
• Introduction: Assuming that the four bays (inlets)
are collinear/ alligned, five corrections, sag, pull,
slope, temperature and mean sea level, will have to
be evaluated to obtain the actual length of the line.

• Solution. It is convenient to tabulate the field

measurements as follow.

L (m) 3 h(m) h2 h2
L 2L

29.898 26 725.54 +0.382 0.1459 0.0024

29.950 26 865.22 - 0.234 0.0548 0.0009
29.883 26 685.33 +0.271 0.0734 0.0012
29.901 26 733.58 -0.075 0.0056 0.0001
119.632 107.009.67 0.2797 0.0046
 W=mxg
Sag correction= -w2L3 = -(0.026x9.806)2x107,009.67
24p2 24x134
= -0.0161m
Pull correction = (p-ps) L = (134-89)x119.632 =0.0107
AE 3.24x15.5x104
Slope correction= - h2 = -0.0046m
2L
Temperature correction =  (T-Ts) L
= 0.000.000 9 (16-20) x119.632
= - 0.0004m
Mean sea level correction = -LmH = - 119.632x53.78
R 6 367 000
= -0.0010m
Sum of all corrections = -0.0161+0.0107-0.0046-0.0004-0.0010
= -0.011m

The length of the line = field length + sum of all

corrections
= 119.632m+(-0.011m)
= 119.621m
 LT L f  CS  C P  CT  C L  Cg  Cmsl

Given:
A 30 meter steel tape, standardized at 20 C using a tensile force
of 70 N; tested and had a length of 29.998 m. Its weight is1.69
N/m and a cross sectional area of 1.29 mm2. A field measurement
(Lf) of 29.663 was found at a temperature of 30 C using a tensile
force of 50 N. Find the actual or true length.
CT= 0.0035m
Cs= - 0.0167m
Cp= - 0.0017m
CL= - 0.002m