The Endocrine

System

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Endocrine Glands
A group of secretory cells that release
their products, chemical signals called
hormones, usually into the circulation. Fig.1: Endocrine
The secretions never pass through ducts secretion.

Hormones control several major processes:

• Reproduction, Growth and development,
Mobilization of body defenses, Maintenance of
homeostasis, Regulation of metabolism

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Figure 9.3 Location of the major endocrine organs of the body.

Pineal gland
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland
Thyroid gland
Parathyroid glands

Thymus

Adrenal glands

Pancreas

Ovary (female)

Testis (male)

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Endocrine Glands
 Endocrine glands include:
 Pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal

and pineal glands.

 Hypothalamus, thymus, pancreas,
ovaries, testes, kidneys, stomach, liver,
small intestine, skin, heart, adipose
tissue, and placenta also have endocrine
function.
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The Hypothalamus

 It’s a major link between the nervous and the

endocrine systems.
 It secretes several hormones that control the
secretions of the pituitary gland.

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The Hypothalamus
 Hypothalamus produces releasing and
inhibiting hormones
 These hormones are released into portal
circulation, which connects hypothalamus to
anterior pituitary
 Hypothalamus also makes two
hormones: oxytocin and antidiuretic
hormone

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The Pituitary Gland (The Hypophysis)
 Located in the hypophyseal fossa
of the sphenoid bone.
 Considered as the ‘Maestro Gland’
because it releases various hormones
that control all the major endocrine
glands of the body.
Fig.2: The
 It’s formed of two anatomical and sphenoid bone.
functional parts:
1. The Adenohypophysis (Anterior Pituitary)
2. The Neurohypophysis (Posterior Pituitary)

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 Figure 9.4 Hormones released by the posterior lobe of the pituitary and their target organs.

Hypothalamic
Pituitary Gland Optic
neurosecretory
cells
chiasma Hypothalamus

 It’s formed of two

anatomical and Axon
Arterial blood supply
terminals
functional parts:
1. Adenohypophysis
Posterior lobe
(Anterior Pituitary) Capillary bed
2. Neurohypophysis Venous drainage
(Posterior Pituitary) Anterior lobe
of the pituitary

ADH Oxytocin

Kidney tubules Mammary glands

Uterine muscles 8
Anterior Pituitary

o The synthesis and release of hormones of

the anterior pituitary are controlled by:
1. Releasing and inhibiting hormones from
the hypothalamus.
2. Feedback regulation.
o Anterior pituitary hormones act on other
endocrine glands.

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 Hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary
Hormone Target
Growth Hormone (GH) Several
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone Thyroid gland
(TSH)
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone Adrenal cortex
Follicle Stimulating Hormone
(FSH) Ovaries and Testes
Leutinizing Hormone (LH)
Prolactin Breast

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Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary
 Growth hormone (GH)
 General metabolic hormone
 Major effects are directed to growth of

skeletal muscles and long bones

 Plays a role in determining final body size

 Causes amino acids to be built into proteins

 Causes fats to be broken down for a source

of energy

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Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary
 Growth hormone (GH) disorders
 Pituitary dwarfism results from
hyposecretion of GH during childhood
 Gigantism results from hypersecretion of

GH during childhood
 Acromegaly results from hypersecretion of

GH during adulthood

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Disorders of pituitary growth hormone.

 This individual
exhibiting gigantism
(right) stands 8 feet, 1
inch tall. The pituitary
dwarf (left) is 2 feet,
5.37 inches tall.

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Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary
 Prolactin (PRL)
 Stimulates and maintains milk production
following childbirth
 Function in males is unknown

 Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

 Regulates endocrine activity of the adrenal
cortex

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Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary
 Thyrotropic hormone (TH), also called
thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
 Influences growth and activity of the thyroid
gland
 Gonadotropic hormones
 Regulate hormonal activity of the gonads

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Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary
 Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
 Stimulates follicle development in

ovaries
 Stimulates sperm development in testes
 Luteinizing hormone (LH)
 Triggers ovulation of an egg in females
 Stimulates testosterone production in

males

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Figure 9.5 Hormones of the anterior pituitary and their major target organs.

Releasing hormones Hypothalamus

secreted into portal
circulation

Anterior pituitary Posterior pituitary

Hypophyseal
portal system Adrenocorticotropic
Growth hormone (GH) hormone (ACTH)

Bones and muscles Prolactin (PRL) Follicle-stimulating Thyrotropic Adrenal cortex

hormone (FSH) hormone (TH)
and luteinizing
Mammary hormone (LH)
glands Thyroid

Testes or ovaries

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Posterior Pituitary
 Does not synthesize hormones.
 Releases the following hormones:
 Oxytocin

 Stimulates contractions of the uterus during labor,

sexual relations, and breastfeeding
Causes milk ejection (let-down reflex) in a
breastfeeding woman
 Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) = Vasopressin

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Posterior Pituitary
 Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
 Inhibits urine production (diuresis) by
promoting water reabsorption by the kidneys
 In large amounts, causes vasoconstriction of

arterioles, leading to increased blood pressure

(the reason why ADH is known as vasopressin)
 Alcohol inhibits ADH secretion

 Diabetes insipidus results from ADH

hyposecretion

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Fig.5: Hypothalamo-hypophysial tract.

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The Thyroid Gland Fig.6: The thyroid gland.

 A butterfly-shaped gland located

inferior to larynx (base of the
throat)
 Consists of two lobes and a
connecting isthmus
Produces two hormones:
1. Thyroid hormone
2. Calcitonin

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Figure 9.7a The thyroid gland.

Thyroid Epiglottis
cartilage

Common
carotid artery
Isthmus of
thyroid gland

Trachea Left subclavian

artery
Brachiocephalic Left lobe of
artery thyroid gland

Aorta

(a) Gross anatomy of the thyroid gland, anterior view

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 Thyroid Gland
 Thyroid hormone
 Major metabolic hormone

 Controls rate of oxidation of glucose to supply body

heat and chemical energy

 Needed for tissue growth and development

 Composed of two active iodine-containing hormones

 Thyroxine (T )—secreted by thyroid follicles

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 Triiodothyronine (T3)—conversion of T4 at target
tissues

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 Thyroid Gland
 Thyroid hormone disorders
 Goiters
 Thyroid gland enlarges because of lack of
iodine
 Salt is iodized to prevent goiters
 Cretinism
 Caused by hyposecretion of thyroxine
 Results in dwarfism during childhood

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Figure 9.8 Woman with an enlarged thyroid (goiter).

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 Thyroid Gland
 Thyroid hormone disorders (continued)
 Myxedema
 Caused by hypothyroidism in adults
 Results in physical and mental sluggishness
 Graves’ disease
 Caused by hyperthyroidism
 Results in increased metabolism, heat intolerance,
rapid heartbeat, weight loss, and exophthalmos

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Thyroid Gland
 Calcitonin
 Decreases blood calcium levels by causing
calcium deposition on bone
 Antagonistic to parathyroid hormone

 Produced by parafollicular cells found between

the follicles

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The Parathyroid Gland
 Tiny masses embedded in the posterior aspect of the
lobes of the thyroid gland.
 They are 4 in number.
 Secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH)
 Stimulates osteoclasts to remove calcium from
bone
 Hypercalcemic hormone (increases blood calcium
levels)
 Stimulates the kidneys and intestine to absorb more
calcium
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The Adrenal (Suprarenal) Glands
 Sit on top of the kidneys
 Two regions:
1. Adrenal cortex—outer glandular region has three
layers that produce corticosteroids
• Mineralocorticoids are secreted by outermost
layer
• Glucocorticoids are secreted by middle layer
• Sex hormones are secreted by innermost layer

2. Adrenal medulla—inner neural tissue region

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 Arrangement
Release
of cells
Like spheres Mineralocorticoids

Straight cords Glucocorticoids

Branching
Androgens
cords

Fig.12: The histology of the

suprarenal glands.
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Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex
 Mineralocorticoids (mainly aldosterone)
 Produced in outer adrenal cortex
 Regulate mineral content in blood,

particularly sodium and potassium ions

 Regulate water and electrolyte balance

 Target organ is the kidney

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Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex
 Mineralocorticoids (mainly aldosterone)
 Produced in outer adrenal cortex
 Regulate mineral content in blood,

particularly sodium and potassium ions

 Regulate water and electrolyte balance

 Target organ is the kidney

Aldosterone production is inhibited by atrial

natriuretic peptide (ANP), a hormone produced by
the heart when blood pressure is too high

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Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex
 Glucocorticoids (including cortisone and
cortisol)
 Produced by middle layer of adrenal cortex
 Promote normal cell metabolism
 Help resist long-term stressors by increasing blood
glucose levels (hyperglycemic hormone)
 Anti-inflammatory properties
 Released in response to increased blood levels of
ACTH

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Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex
 Sex hormones
 Produced in the inner layer of the adrenal
cortex
 Small amounts are made throughout life

 Mostly androgens (male sex hormones) are

made, but some estrogens (female sex

hormones) are also formed

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Adrenal cortex disorders
 Addison’s disease
 Results from hyposecretion of all adrenal cortex
hormones
 Bronze skin tone, muscle weakness, burnout,
susceptibility to infection
 Hyperaldosteronism
 May result from an ACTH-releasing tumor
 Excess water and sodium are retained, leading to
high blood pressure and edema

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Adrenal cortex disorders
 Cushing’s syndrome
 Results from a tumor in the middle cortical area
of the adrenal cortex
 “Moon face,” “buffalo hump” on the upper back,
high blood pressure, hyperglycemia, weakening
of bones, depression
 Masculinization
 Results from hypersecretion of sex hormones
 Beard and male distribution of hair growth

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Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla
 Produces two similar hormones:
(catecholamines)
1. Epinephrine (adrenaline)
2. Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
 These hormones prepare the body to deal with
short-term stress (“fight or flight”) by:
 Increasing heart rate, blood pressure, blood glucose
levels
 Dilating small passageways of lungs

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Pancreatic Islets (Islets of Langerhans
 Pancreas
 Located in the abdomen, close to stomach
 Mixed gland, with both endocrine and exocrine
functions
 The pancreatic islets produce hormones
 Insulin—produced by beta cells
 Glucagon—produced by alpha cells
 These hormones are antagonists that maintain
blood sugar homeostasis

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Figure 9.14a Pancreatic tissue.

Stomach

Pancreas
(a)

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Pancreatic Islets
 Insulin
 Released when blood glucose levels are high
 Increases the rate of glucose uptake and

metabolism by body cells

 Glucagon
 Released when blood glucose levels are low
 Stimulates the liver to release glucose to

blood, thus increasing blood glucose levels

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Homeostatic Imbalance

 Diabetes mellitus
 Occurs in the absence of insulin
 Blood sugar levels increase dramatically
 Blood glucose is lost in the urine; water follows

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Pineal Gland
 Located posterior to the third ventricle of
the brain
 Secretes melatonin
 Helps establish the body’s sleep/wake cycles
as well as biological rhythms
 Believed to coordinate the hormones of

fertility in humans

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Thymus Gland
 Located posterior to the sternum
 Largest in infants and children

 Produces thymosin
 Matures some types of white blood cells
 Important in developing the immune system

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Gonads
 Ovaries
 Produce eggs
 Produce two groups of steroid hormones:

1. Estrogens
2. Progesterone
 Testes
 Produce sperm
 Produce androgens, such as testosterone

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Hormones of the Ovaries
 Estrogens
 Stimulate the development of secondary
female characteristics
 Mature female reproductive organs

 With progesterone, estrogens also

 Promote breast development
 Regulate menstrual cycle

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Hormones of the Ovaries

 Progesterone
 Acts with estrogen to bring about the
menstrual cycle
 Helps in the implantation of an embryo in

the uterus
 Helps prepare breasts for lactation

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Hormones of the Testes
 Produce several androgens
 Testosterone is the most important

androgen
 Responsible for adult male secondary sex
characteristics
 Promotes growth and maturation of male

reproductive system
 Required for sperm cell production

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Placenta
 Produces hormones that maintain
pregnancy
 Some hormones play a part in the

delivery of the baby

 Produces human chorionic gonadotropin

(hCG) in addition to estrogen,

progesterone, and other hormones

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Developmental Aspects of the
Endocrine System
 In the absence of disease, efficiency of
the endocrine system remains high until
old age
 Decreasing function of female ovaries at

menopause leads to such symptoms as

osteoporosis, increased chance of heart
disease, and possible mood changes

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Developmental Aspects of the
Endocrine System
 Efficiency of all endocrine glands
gradually decreases with aging, which
leads to a generalized increase in
incidence of:
 Diabetes mellitus
 Immune system depression

 Lower metabolic rate

 Cancer rates in some areas

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Let’s Build A Model
 By building a model of the endocrine system, you can show how
the hormones travel through the body and different areas are
affected.
Supplies
 Manila Paper
 Markers, pencils, or pens
 Scissors
 Glue
 String (yarn, etc.)
 Positive and Negative feedback loop
Procedure
 Working in partners, have one student lie down on the butcher
paper. Outline their body with markers, pens or crayons.
Procedure (2)
 Shape the organs
of the endocrine
system in Play-Doh
or modeling clay.
 Place the organs in
the correct places
on the drawing you
have made.
Procedure (3)
 Use pieces of string to draw paths showing where
the hormones travel from their originating organ to
their target. Draw target areas on the drawing if it
will help show where the hormones are acting.
Procedure (4)
 Select an organ of the endocrine system to present to the class.
Each group should explain one organ’s function.
 Write a short description of the organ’s location and function.
 Show the rest of the class your model of the endocrine system
and discuss your chosen organ.