INSTITUTE UIE

DEPARTMENT ACADEMIC UNIT-1

Bachelor of Engineering (Computer Science & Engineering)
Subject Name Semi Conductor Physics
Subject Code 24SPH-143
Prepared By
Dr.Abinash
Experiment-3.1.3
Introduction to Photovoltaic cell,advantages,efficiency.

DISCOVER . LEARN . EMPOWER

 Lecture
Objectives
S. No. Objectives

1 To make student aware about Photovoltaic Cells.

2 To aware about working and construction of PV cells

3 To provide knowledge about types of combination between them.

4 To make familiar with difference between cell, module and array.

https://library.automationdirect.com/basic-el
ectrical-theory/
5 To give brief knowledge about their advantages, disadvantages and efficiency.

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 Course
Objectives
S.
Objectives
No.

To understand the basic materials and properties of

1
semiconductors.

Understand the basic of semiconductor and components like

2 diode, transistor, FET, MOSFET and Energy Sources.

https://www.iqsdirectory.com/resources/every
To give knowledge about semiconductor physics and discus thing-you-ever-wanted-to-know-about-semicon
working and applications of basic devices, including p-n ductors/
3
junctions, BJTs and FETs.

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 Course
Outcomes
S.NO Description Blooms’ Taxonomy
Level

To apply the knowledge of basic

CO1 semiconductor material physics and EASY
understand fabrication processes.
To understand the characteristics of different
CO2 electronic devices such as diodes, transistors. MEDIUM

To derive the relationships between the

CO3 parameters in diode, FET, configurations of MEDIUM
Transistor and MOSFETs.
To describe the working and design
considerations for the various photonic devices
CO4 like photo detectors, solar-cells and LEDs. HARD
https://lot.dhl.com/5-things-the-current-semicondu
ctor-slowdown-tells-us-about-the-global-economy/
To provide problem solving experience and
CO5 learning of concepts through it in HARD
semiconductor physics.
4
 Importance of Photovoltaic
Systems
• Unlike the existing systems, the utmost advantage is its being able to produce electricity freely
without any need of fossil fuel and connection.

• Used fuel can be found free and in everyplace. They have no problems regarding carrying and
storage.

• They need low maintenance due to that the moving parts used in the system are low.

• The other systems used in producing electricity ( generators, wind and hydroelectric turbines etc.)
need to systematic maintenance. If your PV system is complicated, It need a little bit maintenance
but in general it can be called these systems as ‘’ free-maintenance’’.

• Comparing the other electric generation systems, probably their utmost advantage is their
reliability. Their moving parts are almost non-existing. They resist to natural events like lightnings,
tough winds or sand storms, moisture and heat, snow or glacial.
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 Content
 Introduction to I-V characteristics of PV cell
 Efficiency of PV cell

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Introduction to Solar Cell Efficiency

• The efficiency is the most commonly used parameter to compare the

performance of one solar cell to another. Efficiency is defined as the ratio of
energy output from the solar cell to input energy from the sun. In addition to
reflecting the performance of the solar cell itself, the efficiency depends on the
spectrum and intensity of the incident sunlight and the temperature of the solar
cell. Therefore, conditions under which efficiency is measured must be carefully
controlled in order to compare the performance of one device to another.
Terrestrial solar cells are measured under AM1.5 conditions and at a temperature
of 25°C.

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Solar cell Efficiency
• The efficiency of a solar cell is determined as the fraction of incident power which is converted to
electricity and is defined as:

• Where:
Voc is the open-circuit voltage;
Isc is the short-circuit current;
FF is the fill factor and
η is the efficiency.
• The input power for efficiency calculations is 1 kW/m2 or 100 mW/cm2. Thus the input power for
a 100 × 100 mm2 cell is 10 W and for a 156 × 156 mm2 cell is 24.3 W
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Fig. 1 Solar Panel

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Working of PV Cell
• The Photovoltaic cell is the semiconductor device that converts the light into
electrical energy. The voltage induces by the PV cell depends on the intensity
of light incident on it. The name Photovoltaic is because of their voltage
producing capability. Photovoltaic cells consist of two or more layers of
semiconductors with one layer containing positive charge and the other
negative charge lined adjacent to each other.
• Sunlight, consisting of small packets of energy termed as photons, strikes the
cell, where it is either reflected, transmitted or absorbed. When the photons are
absorbed by the negative layer of the photovoltaic cell, the energy of the
photon gets transferred to an electron in an atom of the cell. With the increase
in energy, the electron escapes the outer shell of the atom. The freed electron
naturally migrates to the positive layer creating a potential difference between
the positive and the negative layer. When the two layers are connected to an
external circuit, the electron flows through the circuit, creating a current.
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Working of PV cell
• The electrons of the semiconductor material are joined together by the
covalent bond. The electromagnetic radiations are made of small
energy particles called photons. When the photons are incident on the
semiconductor material, then the electrons become energised and
starts emitting. The energised electron is known as the Photoelectrons.
And the phenomenon of emission of electrons is known as the
photoelectric effect. The working of the Photovoltaic cell depends on
the photoelectric effect.

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Working of PV cell
• Consider the figure below shows the PV cell made of silicon and the resistive load
is connected across it. The PV cell consists the P and N-type layer of
semiconductor material. These layers are joined together to form the PN junction.

Fig.2. PV Cell with load resistance

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Working of PV cell
• The light incident on the semiconductor material may be pass or reflected through it. The PV cell is made of
the semiconductor material which is neither a complete conductor nor an insulator. This property of
semiconductor material makes it more efficient for converting the light energy into electric energy.

• When the semiconductor material absorbs light, the electrons of the material starts emitting. This happens
because the light consists small energised particles called photons. When the electrons absorb the photons,
they become energised and starts moving into the material. Because of the effect of an electric field, the
particles move only in the one direction and develops current. The semiconductor materials have the metallic
electrodes through which the current goes out of it.

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Construction of Photovoltaic Cell
• The semiconductor materials like arsenide, indium, cadmium, silicon,
selenium and gallium are used for making the PV cells. Mostly silicon
and selenium are used for making the cell. Consider the figure below
shows the constructions of the silicon photovoltaic cell. The upper
surface of the cell is made of the thin layer of the p-type material so
that the light can easily enter into the material. The metal rings are
placed around p-type and n-type material which acts as their positive
and negative output terminals respectively.

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Construction of Photovoltaic Cell

Fig.3 PV Cell Construction

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Construction of Photovoltaic Cell
• The multi-crystalline or monocrystalline semiconductor material make
the single unit of the PV cell. The mono-crystal cell is cut from the
volume of the semiconductor material. The multicell are obtained from
the material which has many sides. The output voltage and current
obtained from the single unit of the cell is very less. The magnitude of
the output voltage is 0.6V, and that of the current is 0.8A. The different
combinations of cells are used for increasing the output efficiency.
There are three possible ways of combining the PV cells.

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PV cell combinations
• Series Combination of PV Cells: If more than two cells are connected in series
with each other, then the output current of the cell remains same, and their input
voltage becomes doubles. The graph below shows the output characteristic of the
PV cells when connected in series.

Fig.4 PV Cell Characteristics for series combination

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PV cell combinations
• Parallel Combination of PV cells

• In the parallel combination of the cells, the voltage remains same, and the magnitude of current
becomes double. The characteristic curve of the parallel combination of cells is represented below.

Fig.5 PV Cell Characteristics for parallel combination

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PV cell combinations
• Series-Parallel Combination of PV cells

• In the series-parallel combination of cells the magnitude of both the voltage

and current increases. Thereby, the solar panels are made by using the series-
parallel combination of the cells.

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Fig.6 PV Cell Characteristics for series-parallel combination
Advantages of PV cell
• Environmental Sustainability: Photovoltaic cells generate clean and green energy as no harmful gases
such as COx, NOx etc are emitted. Also, they produce no noise pollution which makes them ideal for
application in residential areas.

• Economically Viable:The operation and maintenance costs of cells are very low. The cost of solar panels
incurred is only the initial cost i.e., purchase and installation.

• Accessible: Solar panels are easy to set up and can be made accessible in remote locations or sparsely
inhabited areas at a lesser cost as compared to conventional transmission lines. They are easy to install
without any interference with the residential lifestyle.

• Renewable: Energy is free and abundant in nature.

• Cost: Solar panels have no mechanically moving parts except in some highly advanced sunlight tracking
mechanical bases. Consequently, the solar panel price for maintenance and repair is negligible.

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Disadvantages of PV cell
• The efficiency of solar panels is low compared to other renewable sources of energy.

• Energy from the sun is intermittent and unpredictable and can only be harnessed in the presence of sunlight.
Also, the power generated gets reduced during cloudy weather.

• Long-range transmission of solar energy is inefficient and difficult to carry. The current produced is DC in
nature and the conversion of DC current to AC current involves the use of additional equipment such as
inverters.

• Photovoltaic panels are fragile and can be damaged relatively easily. Additional insurance costs are required
to ensure a safeguard of the investments.

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PV module, panel and array
• Photovoltaic cells are connected electrically in series and/or parallel
circuits to produce higher voltages, currents and power levels.
Photovoltaic modules consist of PV cell circuits sealed in an
environmentally protective laminate, and are the fundamental building
blocks of PV systems. Photovoltaic panels include one or more PV
modules assembled as a pre-wired, field-installable unit. A
photovoltaic array is the complete power-generating unit, consisting of
any number of PV modules and panels.

22
Fig.7 PV Cell, Module, panel and Array 23
PV module, panel and array
• The performance of PV modules and arrays are generally rated according to their
maximum DC power output (watts) under Standard Test Conditions (STC). Standard
Test Conditions are defined by a module (cell) operating temperature of 25o C (77o F),
and incident solar irradiance level of 1000 W/m2 and under Air Mass 1.5 spectral
distribution. Since these conditions are not always typical of how PV modules and arrays
operate in the field, actual performance is usually 85 to 90 percent of the STC rating.

• Today’s photovoltaic modules are extremely safe and reliable products, with minimal
failure rates and projected service lifetimes of 20 to 30 years. Most major manufacturers
offer warranties of 20 or more years for maintaining a high percentage of initial rated
power output.

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Characteristics of PV cell
• The I-V characteristics curve usually defines the PV cell performance. A
combined performance of all the solar cell in a module defines a I-V
characteristics of a PV module and similarly it also defines I-V characteristics of a
string.
• Short circuit current (ISC) – It is the maximum current that can flow through a
cell when the voltage across the solar cell is zero (0) (i.e., when the solar cell is
short circuited). It is denoted by ISC.
• Open circuit voltage (VOC) – It is the maximum voltage a solar cell can produce
when no load is connected to it (i.e., measures with a multimeter across the open
ends of the wires). It is denoted by VOC.

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Characteristics of PV cell
• The following figure shows the I-V characteristics curve, P-V characteristics curve and datasheet of a PV
module. The vertical axis denotes the current (I) while the horizontal axis denotes the voltage (V). Following
terms are defined to understand the I-V characteristics curve: –

Fig.8 Characteristics of PV Cell 26

Characteristics of PV cell
• In a typical 545 Wp module, the short circuit current (ISC) is 18.47 Amps and
Open circuit voltage (VOC) is 37.7 V, both measured at standard test condition
(STC). The power output from the solar module is the product of current and
voltage at a particular instant on the I-V characteristics curve. The highest power
output is realised at a particular point on the I-V characteristics curve which is
known as Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) and the respective current and
voltage are known as Current at maximum power (IMPP) voltage at maximum
power (VMPP). Typically, the I-V characteristics curve is drawn at one sun
radiation (1000 W/m2) however, variation in solar radiation value predominantly
changes the current output from the solar panel and subsequently the power
output. The output voltage from solar panel is highly dependent on the operating
temperature of the solar cells. With increase in temperature the open circuit voltage
(VOC) of cells reduces which is defined as temperature co-efficient of solar panel.
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Efficiency of PV cell
• Efficiency is the comparison of energy output to energy input of a given system. For solar photovoltaic
(PV) cells, this means the ratio of useful electrical energy they produce to the amount of solar energy
incident on the cell under standardized testing conditions. Although some experimental solar cells have
achieved efficiencies of close to 50%, most commercial cells are below 30%.

• Solar-cell efficiency refers to the portion of energy in the form of sunlight that can be converted via
photovoltaics into electricity by the solar cell.
• The efficiency of the solar cells used in a photovoltaic system, in combination with latitude and climate,
determines the annual energy output of the system. For example, a solar panel with 20% efficiency and
an area of 1 m2 will produce 200 kWh/yr at Standard Test Conditions if exposed to the Standard Test
Condition solar irradiance value of 1000 W/m2 for 2.74 hours a day. Usually solar panels are exposed to
sunlight for longer than this in a given day, but the solar irradiance is less than 1000 W/m2 for most of
the day. A solar panel can produce more when the sun is high in the sky and will produce less in cloudy
conditions or when the sun is low in the sky, usually the sun is lower in the sky in the winter.

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Efficiency of PV cell
• The efficiency of a solar cell is determined as the fraction of incident power which is converted to
electricity and is defined as:

• Where:
Voc is the open-circuit voltage;
Isc is the short-circuit current;
FF is the fill factor and
η is the efficiency.
• The input power for efficiency calculations is 1 kW/m 2 or 100 mW/cm2. Thus the input power for a 100 ×
100 mm2 cell is 10 W and for a 156 × 156 mm 2 cell is 24.3 W
29
 Summary
• Introduction to Photovoltaic cell.
• PV cell working.
• PV cell construction
• PV cell, module and array
• Advantages and disadvantages of PV cell technology
• I-V characteristics of PV cell
• Efficiency of PV cell

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 Frequently Asked Questions
• Q1 How do solar cells work?
• A solar panel works by allowing particles of light, or photons, to knock electrons free from atoms,
generating a flow of electricity.
• Q2 What is the principle of solar cells?
• Silicon crystals are laminated into p-type and n-type layers, stacked on top of each other. Light
striking the crystals induces the “photovoltaic effect,” which generates electricity.
• Q3 State true or false: Solar energy is a renewable form of energy.
• TRUE.
• Q4 What does the solar cell include?
• Solar cell consists of a crystalline silicon solar panel which is a series of interconnected silicon cells
joined together to form a circuit.
• Q5 Can solar power from photovoltaic cells be harnessed in the absence of sunlight?
• No, it can be only harnessed in the presence of sunlight.
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 To make students understand
• Concepts of Photovoltaic
LEARNING systems
OUTCOMES
• Construction and working of
PV cells

• Characteristics and efficiency

of PV cells

32
 Assessment Pattern

A B C D E F G
Assignment Time Bound Quiz (each Mid Semester Homework Discussion Attendance
(each Surprise Test quiz) Test(one per Forums and
assignment) (each test) test) engagement
Score on BB

10 12 4 20 NA NA 2

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 References
• Websites:

1. https://circuitglobe.com/photovoltaic-or-solar-cell.html
2. https://byjus.com/physics/solar-energy-and-photovoltaic-cell/
3. https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Photovoltaic_cell
4. https://www.planete-energies.com/en/media/article/how-does-photovoltaic-cell-work
5. https://www.firstgreen.co/i-v-characteristics-curves-for-solar-panels/
6. https://www.pveducation.org/pvcdrom/solar-cell-operation/iv-curve

• Online Books:

• https://www.researchgate.net/publication/304513870_Basics_of_Electrical_Engineering_-_a_text_book_for_first_year_B
_Tech_students_of_Engineering_all_specializations
• https://electricalanswers.files.wordpress.com/2014/09/a-textbook-of-electrical-technology-volume-i-basic-electrical-engin
eering-b-l-theraja.pdf
• https://drive.google.com/file/d/1Q8OXkp--k5TJtZ4TjBeZEIQGcyjh8VO6/view
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References
• Video:
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HvoNJJS5dkc
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X0OZ6tpZ3Mc
3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L_q6LRgKpTw
• Text Books:
1. P. Wurfell , “Physics of Solar Cells: From Basic Principles to Advanced Concepts”, Wiley, 2009
2. J Nelson, "The Physics of Solar Cells" , Imperial College Press, 2003
3. Martin A Green, "Solar Cells: Operating Principles, Technology and System Applications", Prentice Hall Series,
1982
4. V.N. Mittle “Basic Electrical Engineering”, Tata McGraw Hill Edition, New Delhi, 1990.
5. Electrical Technology by Surinder Pal Bali, Pearson Publications.
6. R.S. Sedha, “Applied Electronics” S. Chand & Co., 2006.
7. Electronic Devices and Circuits, R.L. Boylestad and Louis Nashelsky, 9th edition, PEI/PHI 2006.
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