CONTENTS

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO LANGUAGE STUDIES

1.1.1 LANGUAGE FAMILY
1.1.2 LANGUAGES OF NEPAL
1.1.3 LANGUAGE CHANGE
1.1.4 LANGUAGE DEATH
1.1.5 VARIETIES OF LANGUAGE
1.2 ISSUES AND ASPECTS OF LANGUAGE
1.2.1 LANGUAGE PEDAGOGY
1.2.2 MULTILINGUALISM AND MULTICULTURALISM
1.2.3 LANGUAGE RIGHTS
1.2.4 TRANSLATION
1.1 Introduction to
Language Studies
An overview of language families
and the languages of Nepal
 1.1 Introduction to Language Studies
If you talk to a man in a language he understands, that goes to
his head. If you talk to him in his own language, that goes to his
heart. -Nelson mandela
o We communicate with each other through a language.
o Language has words/ combination of words into sentences.
o We exchange thoughts, ideas, feelings and experiences using a
structured system of communication.
o Under the language studies, human communication system
including language families, languages of Nepal, language
change, language death and varieties of language is studied here.
 Importance of Language Study

•Language study aids

communication.
•Enhances cognitive skills.
•Promotes cultural
understanding.
•Boosts career options.
•Enriches personal life.
 1.1.1 Language Family:
Definition
 A language
family is a group of languages related
through descent from a common ancestral
language.
 Languages within a family share a set of
similarities in vocabulary, grammar, and syntax.
 Example: The Indo-European language family
includes languages like English, Spanish, and
Hindi.
 Major Language
Families
 Indo-European: Most widely spoken; includes languages like
English, Spanish, Hindi, Russian.
 Sub-families of Indo-European: Germanic: Danish, English,
German, Swedish. Italic: French, Italian, Spanish, Protuguese.
Slavic: Polish, Russian, Ukrainian. Indic: Sanskrit-Hindi,
Nepali, Punjabi, Urdu.
 Sino-Tibetan: Includes languages like Chinese, Burmese,
Tibetan, Sherpa, Newari, etc.
 Afro-Asiatic: Includes languages like Arabic, Hebrew, Somali.
 Niger-Congo: Includes languages like Swahili, Yoruba, Zulu,
Xhosa, Bassa, etc.
Indo-European Language
Family
 Examples of languages: English, Spanish, Hindi,
Russian.
 Characteristics:
- Largest language family by number of
speakers.
- Historical significance in the development of
Western civilization.
 - Wide geographical spread from Europe to
South Asia.
 Sino-Tibetan Language
Family
 Examples of languages: Chinese (Mandarin,
Cantonese), Burmese, Tibetan.
 Characteristics:
- Second largest language family by number of
speakers.
- Predominantly spoken in East Asia, Southeast Asia,
and the Himalayas.
- Includes some of the world's oldest written
languages.
 Other Language Families

 Afro-Asiatic:
 - Examples: Arabic, Hebrew, Amharic.
 - Characteristics: Spoken in the Middle East, North Africa, Horn of
Africa.
 Niger-Congo:
 - Examples: Swahili, Yoruba, Zulu.
 - Characteristics: Most languages spoken in Sub-Saharan Africa.
 Additional Families:
 - Dravidian: Spoken in South India and parts of Sri Lanka (e.g., Tamil,
Telugu).
 - Austronesian: Spoken in Southeast Asia, Pacific islands (e.g., Malay,
Tagalog).
 Major Language Families and
their Relationship with
Population
 The six largest language families by language count are Indo-
European, Niger-Congo, Austronesian, Trans-New Guinea,
Sino-Tibetan, and Afro-Asiatic.
 These 6 families make up five-sixths of the world's population.
 Indo-European (Eg. English) and Sino-Tibetan (Eg. Chinese)
are the largest families with over 4.6 billion speakers between
them.
 English is the largest language in the world if we count both
native and non-native speakers.
 Mandarin Chinese is the largest language with close to one
Billion native speakers.
 1.1.2 Languages of Nepal: Introduction

 Overview of the linguistic diversity in Nepal.

 Official Language: Nepali.
 Major Regional Languages: Maithili, Bhojpuri,
Tharu, Tamang, Newar, Magar, Rai.
 Ethnologue 2020: there are 7,117 living languages
worldwide, out of which 123+ languages are spoken
in Nepal.
 Only 44.64 % population speak Nepali as native
language.
 Language Families in
Nepal
 Sino-Tibetan Family:
 - Examples: Tamang, Gurung, Sherpa.
 - Characteristics: Predominantly spoken in the northern and
eastern parts of Nepal.
 Indo-Aryan Family:
 - Examples: Nepali, Maithili, Bhojpuri.
 - Characteristics: Predominantly spoken in the southern plains
and hilly regions.
 Other Families: Include several indigenous languages and
language isolates.
 Major Languages of
Nepal
 Nepali:
 - Status: Official language.
 - Characteristics: Used in government, education, and media.
 Maithili:
 - Region: Terai region.
 - Characteristics: Second most spoken language in Nepal.
 Bhojpuri:
 - Region: Southern Terai.
 - Characteristics: Widely spoken in the Terai region.
 Tharu:
 - Region: Western Terai.
 - Characteristics: Spoken by the Tharu ethnic group.
 Tamang, Newar, Magar:
 - Regions: Various hilly and mountainous regions.
 - Characteristics: Significant in cultural and social contexts.
 Linguistic Diversity in
Nepal
 Statistics: 124 languages spoken.
 Endangered Languages: Efforts to preserve languages like Kusunda
and Raute.
 Cultural Significance: Linguistic diversity reflects the cultural
richness of Nepal, social harmony and feeling of togetherness.
 Nepali is spoken as lingua franca in Nepal.
 1.1.3 Language
Change
 it is the change in language which takes place over time.
 it is variation over time in a language's features.
 all living languages have changed and continue to change.
 living languages never remain static, however, it takes long time.
 wheel of language change moves continuously with very slow speed.
 Modern English is different from Old-English (450-1066 BC)
 Bhanubhakta's Nepali was different from today's Nepali
 language change takes place in speech first and writing later.
 language change is due to our changing lives, experiences and cultures.
 language change enables us to accommodate new ideas, inventions and
technologies.
 Trade, Migration, Technology, New Inventions, borrowing, etc. cause it
happen.
 Language change occurs in pronunciation, spelling, vocabulary, word forms
and meaning.
 Reasons of Language
Change

A. Fashion
 just like fashion changes with time, language changes too.
 changes in society, culture and other uses lead to lg.
change.
 globalization, localization, and migration drive the
language change
 innovation and invention has changed the English
language.
 Example: facebook, messenger, chat, SMS, status,
facebook wall, newsfeed, posting, upload, cloud storage
(Online Storage), etc.
 Reasons of Language
Change
B. Foreign Influence
 by the process of borrowing words from foreign language
 English is rich with vocabulary as it goes on adding new words borrowing
from other languages
 words are borrowed from other language in case of preserving actual
meaning of the original words.
 Eg. Nepali word topi has no actual meaning. It means cap is different from
topi.
 borrowed words are known as loan words.
 Eg. : coffee (Turkish), dollar (Dutch), zero (Arabic), loot (Hindi), guru
(Sanskrit), cartoon (Italian), lemon (Arabic), justice (French), tsunami
(Japanese), Chow mein (Chinese), khukuri (Nepali)
 Alcohol (Arabic), Ballet (French), Café (French), Cigar (Spanish), Jungle
(Hindi), Kindergarten (German), Lava (Italian), Piano (Italian), Robot
(Czech), Safari (Swahili), Sofa (Arabic), Tattoo (Tahitian), Vaccine
(Latin), Yogurt (Turkish), Zebra (Portuguese)
 Reasons of Language
Change

C. Broadening
 is a process in which the meaning of a word becomes more general
or more inclusive than its historical earlier form.
 eg. in Old English 'aunt' meant to be 'father's sister', but now it has
become 'father or mother's sister'.
 bird initially meant to be a small fowl, now refers to any girl.
D. Narrowing
 is the process in which the meaning of a word becomes less
general or less inclusive than its historical meaning
 historically, meat meant to be any type of food, now refers
to 'flesh of an animal
 1.1.4 Language Death

 state of having no speakers of a particular language.

 when a speech community's linguistic competence in their
language decreases, eventually resulting in no native or fluent
speakers of it, language death is said to occur.
 language is declared dead before the last native speaker of the
language dies.
 half of the spoken languages of the world are not being taught to
new generations of children.
 language death can affect any language form including dialects.
 Sanskrit is known as the dead language as there are no native
speakers of it.
 In linguistics, language death occurs when a language loses its last
native speaker.
 Language Shift

 is a process whereby a speech community shifts to a different

language usually over an extended period of time.
 it is also known as language transfer or language replacement or
language assimilation.
 language death is the final outcome of language shift.
 Most of the speakers of indigenous languages no longer use their
mother tongue nowadays.
 language shift takes place when members of the community have
collectively chosen a new language.
 it occurs when speakers switch to a language associated with
social or economic power or spoken more widely.
 Minority, endangered
and dominant
languages
 A minority language is used by a minority group in society.
 Minority languages are always at risk of endangerment.
 An endangered language risks disappearing as its speakers
die out or shift to other languages.
 A dominant language has societal prestige and is used most
often.
 A language becomes extinct (endangered) when no one can
speak it anymore.
 Languages are dying rapidly due to globalization, neo-
colonialism, linguistic imperialism, and linguicide
(language killing).
 Minority, endangered
and dominant
languages
 Many languages in Nepal are endangered as children stop learning
them, shifting to the national language or English.
 Cultural, political, economic, educational, and literary factors drive
individuals to adopt (embrace) more prestigious languages.
 Political dominance arises when education and politics are conducted
solely in the majority language.
 Economic dominance harms minority languages as poverty prompts
migration to cities or abroad.
 The top 5 native languages are Mandarin Chinese, Spanish, English,
Hindi, and French. The top 5 by total speakers are English, Mandarin
Chinese, Hindi, Spanish, and French (Ethnologue, 2020).
 1.1.5 Varieties of
Language
 It refers to the variations in the use of the same language.
 Diverse forms and expressions based on geography,
social context, ethnicity, and individual preferences.
 Same language can be used differently in different
places, society, fields, situations, etc.
 Varieties of language are not the types of language, rather
the variations in the use of the same language.
 Dialects, registers, idiolects, etc. are the varieties of
language.
 Dialect
 a variety of language spoken in one part of a country or
by people belonging to a particular social class.
 variation differs in some words, grammar and
pronunciation.
 one dialect differs from another according to the users.
 dialect is a user-based variety of a particular language.
 it is the variation in the use of a language according to
the place, time and group of people.
 it differs in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary from
the standard language.
 Types of Dialect
A. Geographical (regional)
Dialect
 variety of language that is different from place to place.
 it is a variety because of geographical region.
 it is spoken by the people of a particular geographical area
within a speech community.
 barriers such as mountains, lakes, rivers and distance such as
eastern, western parts develop dialects. Eg. American
English, Indian English, British English, etc.
 Nepali people in the east say 'jindagani, but in the western
part, people say 'parani' to say life.
 In short, language is the same, but words, structures and
pronunciation are different.
 Examples of Dialect in terms
of Vocabulary
Eastern Nepali Western Nepali British English American English
(Doteli)
holiday vacation
pitho dhulo (flour) lorry truck
tarkari tiun (curry) timetable schedule
ramro niko (good) rubber eraser
goru balla (bull) torch flashlight
chhori cheli (daughter) queue line
British English American English British English American English
mobile phone cell phone flat apartment
rubbish garbage lift elevator
nappy diaper biscuit cookie
underground subway sweets candy
pavement sidewalk ground floor first floor
Examples of Dialect in terms
of Vocabulary
British English American English British English American English
football soccer post mail
film movie petro;l gasoline
autumn fall pub bar
garden yard chemist pharmacy
shop store note bill (currency)
tin can canteen cafeteria
bonnet hood (of a car) current account checking account
lorry truck flatmate roommate
crisps chips flyover overpass
chips French fries full stop period
tap faucet high street main street
Examples of Dialect in terms
of Pronunciation
Words British English American English
Advertisement //ədˈvɜːtɪsmənt/ /æd.vɝːˈtaɪz.mənt/
Ballet /ˈbæleɪt/ /bæˈleɪt/
Barrier /ˈbæriə/ /ˈbæriər/
Garage /ˈɡærɑːʒ/ /ɡəˈrɑːʒ/
arm /a:m/ /arm/
go /gəu/ /gou/
box /bɒks/ /ba:ks/
dog /dɒg/ dɔ:g/
got /gɒt/ ga:t/
 Examples of Dialect in terms
of Spelling
British English American English British English American English
maths math aeroplane airplane
cancelled canceled neighbour neighbor
travelling traveling labour labor
metre meter honour honor
centre center realize realize
programme program analyse analyze
colour color doughnut donut
tyre tire defence defense
theatre theater fibre fiber
cheque check fulfil fulfill
humour humor judgement judgment
licence license jewellery jewelry
 Examples of Dialect in terms
of Grammar
Aspects British English American English

have or have got I've got an idea. I have an idea.

Have you got a pen? Do you have a pen?
I haven't got any money. I don't have any money.
present perfect or past simple I've just called him. I just called him/
(yet, already, just) I've already called him. I already called him.
I haven't called him yet. I didn't call him yet.
collective nouns (singular or My family is/ are religious. My family is religious.
plural verbs) Their team is/ are winning. Their team is winning.
Past tense form get-got-got get-got-gotten
learn-learnt-learnt learn-learned-learned
prove-proved-proved prove-proved-proven
smell-smelt-smelt smell-smelled-smelled
spill-spilt-spilt spill-spilled-spilled
have or take I'm going to have/take a I'm going to take a shower.
shower. Let's take a break.
Let's have/ take a break.
 Social Dialect (Sociolect)

 a variety of a language used by people belonging to a particular

social class.
 it is spoken by the member of a particular group of a speech
community.
 it enables people to identify the person in terms of their age,
education, social class and status.
 it can be classified as high or low (in status) Eg. He did it
yesterday. (Higher), He done it yesterday. (Lower)
 Examples of sociolect: English of male and female, child and
adult English, English of educated and uneducated people,
Black English and White English, etc.
 Black English is more informal, and casual in comparison to
white one.
Examples of Dialect in terms
of Vocabulary
Black English Standard American
Vernacular English
She all right. She is all right.
He stay working. He is always working.
He been working. He has been working.
I ain't know that. I don't know that.
I didn't go nowhere. I didn't go anywhere.
He don eat his dinner. He has eaten his dinner.
He doesn't know He doesn't know anything.
nothing.
 Register

register is a speech variety used by a particular group

of people usually sharing the same occupation or the
same interest.
It is a use-based variety of a language. The range of
register best concerned with our jobs, what we are
doing at a given time and who we are speaking to.
In short, variation of language in terms of its use is
called register.
Example: written/ spoken, formal/ informal, scientific/
literary English, etc.
 Types of Register

A. Field-based Register
 language changes according to the subject matter or
field about which one is talking about.
 also known as topic-based register
 Literary English, scientific English, Sports English,
legal English, etc.
B. Mode-based Register
 mode refers to the medium of communication.
 two mediums of communication are in practice.
 spoken language and Written language come under
mode- based registers.
 Types of Register

C. Tenor or situation-based register

 tenor refers to the relation among the participants in case of communication
 formal and informal varieties of language are called tenor-based registers.
 language spoken or used by the same person can be formal or informal
according to the when, where and with whom one is speaking.
Eg. Registers in education: examination, test, questions, syllabus, curriculum,
students, teachers, pass, second period, homework, etc. Register in humanities
and social science: society, caste, gender, culture, poem, story, ritual, behavior,
human beings, festival, etc. Registers in science and technology: machine,
nuclear bomb, nuclear fusion/ fission, solar system, mobile, robot, experiment,
disease, injection, vaccine, pneumonia, etc. Registers in law and justice:
illegal, right, court, case, lawyer, bill, accused, appeal, arrest, convict, contract,
crime, custody, judge, judgement, kidnap, fine, prison, capital punishment,
guilty, etc.
 Idiolect
 The language system of an individual as expressed by the way he or she
speaks or writes within the overall system of a particular language.
(Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics,
2010)
 It is also known as individual dialect.
 It is a variety of language used by one individual speaker, including
peculiarities (unusual features) in pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary,
etc.
 A dialect is made up of idiolects of a group of speakers in a social or
regional sub-division of a speech community.
 Idiolect is an identifiable pattern of speech characteristic of an individual
or "idiolect is the individual's personal variety of the community
language system. (A dictionary of Linguistics, 1954)
 A language varies in its accent, tone, word choice and the way it is
expressed from individual which is why a person is easily identifiable on
the basis of how he/ she speaks.
 Idiolect is a way of identifying a person.
 Dialect is the way that a particular person uses language. (OALD V10)
 Pidgin

 Pidgin language is a simplified form of speech that develops when

people who do not share a common language need to communicate.
 It is used as a lingua franca by people who speak different language.
 It has basic and straightforward grammatical rules.
 It uses a small number of words compared to full languages.
 Words are often spelled the way they sound.
 Pidgins include words from several different languages.
 People only developed and used pidgins as a second language, not
as their first language.
 The meaning of sentences relies heavily on the situation and
context.
 They don't change words for tense, gender, or number like past
tense or plural.
 Speakers may mix elements form different languages within the
same conversation.
 Creole

 A creole language is a stable, natural language developed from a

mixture of different languages.
 When pidgin language is spoken as a native language by the
children of it, it is known as a creole language.
 creoles typically form in multilingual communities, often through
colonization or trade.
 unlike pidgins, creoles have native speakers who learn it as their
first language.
 creoles possess a rich vocabulary that supports all aspects of life.
 creole languages are often tied to the cultural identity of a
community.
 Creole's vocabulary often drives primarily from one dominant
language, known as lexifier.
 many creole languages have written literature and are used in media
and education.
 1.2 Issues and Aspects of
Language
Language is not a genetic gift, it is a social gift. Learning a new
language is becoming a member of the club-the community of
speakers of that language. -Frank Smith
 Reading, writing, listening and speaking are the four basic
language skills.
 Listening and speaking: primary language skills.
 Reading and Writing: Secondary language skills.
 Listening and Reading are the receptive language skills.
 Speaking and Writing are the productive language skills.
 Pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar and language functions are
the aspects of language.
 Language teaching means teaching these skills and aspects.
 Historically, various methods and approaches are used in
teaching language skills, however, they encountered different
issues, such issues are the issues of language.
 1.2.1 Language Pedagogy
 Pedagogy is the method of teaching and learning.
 Pedagogy of teaching refers to the way teachers deliver the content of the
curriculum to a class.
 It includes teaching methods and practices, teaching styles, teaching theory,
feedback and evaluation/ assessment.
 It is concerned with teaching and learning languages.
 It encompasses theories and practices related to teaching languages in a
variety of institutional, cultural and political contexts.
 Current instructional designs focus on task/ content- based language
instruction with technology-enhanced methods.
 Purpose of language teaching and learning is to develop intercultural
communicative competence in diverse cultural contexts.
 Current shift is from communicative competence to intercultural competence.
 Intercultural competence refers to the ability to interact with people form
different cultures.
 In today's multicultural contexts, the best language pedagogy should be
socially responsive and culturally sensitive.
 Issues regarding language teaching and
learning
A. The teaching of language and about language
 Teaching of language is teaching language for communication.
 Teaching about language is just making the learners familiar about the aspects
and skills of language.
 We teach language, we involve the learners in the use of it in spoken and/ or
written form.
 Teaching language is for the actual use of language in every communication.
 Since learning language is for communication, teaching of language can fulfil
this purpose.
 When we teach about the language, we make the learners familiar about
grammar, vocabulary, structures, pronunciation, reading writing, etc.
 If language is taught in this way, learners can analyse the language, read and
write, but may not be able to communicate by using it effectively.
 In the context of Nepal, we teach about the language and its consequence is that
even after passing certain level/ degree, the learners are unable to speak even a
single piece of utterance.
 Teaching language is the practical use of language while teaching about
language is the theoretical delivery of language. Teach language rather than
about language.
 Issues regarding language teaching and
learning

B. The teaching of contents or skills or both

 Whether to teach contents or skills or both is another
issue.
 Communicative language teaching focuses on teaching
language skills.
 Content based instruction focuses on teaching the contents
included in a curriculum, a syllabus or a textbook.
 To develop intercultural communicative competence in
the learners, it is necessary to teach both contents and
skills.
 Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), which
is a dual-focused pedagogical approach that focuses on the
development of both language and content at the same
time.
 Major Shifts in Language Pedagogy
(Approaches and Methods)
 Language teaching has a long history so, there hav3e been
major shifts in language pedagogy over the last 150 years.
 Various methods came in existence in course of time, like
GT method, audio-lingual method, direct method,
communicative approach, content and language integrated
learning, etc.
 Different methodologists have contributed much in the
field of language teaching and learning and introduced
different methods in different times.
 Various approaches, methods and strategies develop in
different times influence the current state of English
language teaching and learning.
 Grammar Translation Method

 The Grammar Translation Method (GTM) emphasizes

reading and writing over speaking and listening.
 It uses translation exercises to teach grammar and
vocabulary.
 Instruction is primarily in the students' native language.
 Students learn grammatical rules deductively, through
explicit instruction.
 Vocabulary is taught in the form of isolated word lists.
 Accuracy and grammatical correctness are prioritized.
 Reading classical texts is a primary activity.
 It teaches about language rather than language itself.
 It often involves memorization of rules and vocabulary.
 The method is criticized for lack of emphasis on
communicative competence.
 Direct Method

 The Direct Method was appeared in the late 19 th century.

 It emphasizes speaking and listening over reading and writing.
 Instruction is conducted exclusively in the target language.
 Grammar is taught inductively, without explicit rules.
 Vocabulary is introduced through demonstration, objects, and
pictures.
 Emphasis is placed on correct pronunciation and spontaneous
use of language.
 Everyday vocabulary and sentences are prioritized.
 Teachers use questions and answers to promote oral interaction.
 Students are encouraged to think in the target language.
 No translation is used; meaning is conveyed through visual aids
and context.
 The method aims to develop conversational skills and fluency.
 Audio-lingual
Method

 The Audio-Lingual Method (ALM) originated in the United States during

the 1940s and 1950s, influenced by behaviorist psychology and structural
linguistics.
 ALM emphasizes listening and speaking through repetitive drills.
 Language learning is viewed as habit formation.
 Instruction focuses on mimicking and memorizing set phrases and
dialogues.
 Grammar is taught inductively through pattern practice.
 Correct pronunciation and intonation are crucial.
 Teachers use minimal explanations and avoid using the students' native
language.
 Mistakes are corrected immediately to prevent bad habit formation.
 Drills include repetition, substitution, transformation, and question-
answer patterns.
 The method aims to develop automatic, accurate responses in the target
language.
 Communicative
Approach

 The Communicative Approach started in the 1970s.

 It focuses on using language to communicate in real-life
situations.
 The goal is to develop communicative skills not focusing
on perfect grammar.
 Students work in pairs, groups, and role-plays.
 The target language is used almost all the time.
 Grammar is learned through using the language.
 Mistakes are not heavily corrected.
 Real-life materials like newspapers and videos are used.
 The teacher guides rather than instructs.
 The approach aims for fluency and confidence in
speaking.
 Communicative
Approach
 Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) began in Europe
in the 1990s.
 It teaches subjects like science or history in a second language.
 The focus is on both content and language learning.
 Students use the target language to study and understand the subject.
 It includes four elements: content, communication, cognition and
culture.
 It promotes language skills while learning academic content.
 Lessons include speaking, listening, reading, and writing.
 Authentic materials and real-life contexts are used.
 The teacher supports both subject and language understanding.
 Activities are interactive and student-centered.
 CLIL aims to improve both language proficiency and subject
knowledge.
 It encourages students to develop 21st century skills, including the
ability to think critically, be creative to communicate and
collaborate.
 English Language Teaching Situation in
Nepal
 Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) began in Europe
in the 1990s.
 It teaches subjects like science or history in a second language.
 The focus is on both content and language learning.
 Students use the target language to study and understand the subject.
 It includes four elements: content, communication, cognition and
culture.
 It promotes language skills while learning academic content.
 Lessons include speaking, listening, reading, and writing.
 Authentic materials and real-life contexts are used.
 The teacher supports both subject and language understanding.
 Activities are interactive and student-centered.
 CLIL aims to improve both language proficiency and subject
knowledge.
 It encourages students to develop 21st century skills, including the
ability to think critically, be creative to communicate and
collaborate.