.

Cluster Analysis

 What is Cluster Analysis?

 Types of Data in Cluster Analysis
 A Categorization of Major Clustering Methods
 Partitioning Methods
 Hierarchical Methods
 Density-Based Methods
 Grid-Based Methods
 Model-Based Clustering Methods
 Outlier Analysis
 Summary
二〇二五年五月三十一日 1
 Clustering

 The process of grouping samples so that

the samples are similar within each
group.

二〇二五年五月三十一日 2
 Clustering

二〇二五年五月三十一日 3
 General Applications of Clustering

 Pattern Recognition
 Spatial Data Analysis
 create thematic maps in GIS by clustering

feature spaces
 detect spatial clusters and explain them in

spatial data mining

 Image Processing
 Economic Science (especially market research)
 WWW
 Document classification

 Cluster Weblog data to discover groups of

similar access patterns

二〇二五年五月三十一日 5
 Examples of Clustering
Applications
 Marketing: Help marketers discover distinct groups in
their customer bases, and then use this knowledge to
develop targeted marketing programs
 Land use: Identification of areas of similar land use in
an earth observation database
 Insurance: Identifying groups of motor insurance
policy holders with a high average claim cost
 City-planning: Identifying groups of houses according
to their house type, value, and geographical location
 Earth-quake studies: Observed earth quake epicenters
should be clustered along continent faults

二〇二五年五月三十一日 6
 What Is Good Clustering?

 A good clustering method will produce high quality

clusters with

high intra-class similarity

low inter-class similarity
 The quality of a clustering result depends on both
the similarity measure used by the method and its
implementation.
 The quality of a clustering method is also measured
by its ability to discover some or all of the hidden
patterns.
二〇二五年五月三十一日 7
 Requirements of Clustering in Data
Mining
 Scalability
 Ability to deal with different types of attributes
 Discovery of clusters with arbitrary shape
 Minimal requirements for domain knowledge to
determine input parameters
 Able to deal with noise and outliers
 Insensitive to order of input records
 High dimensionality
 Incorporation of user-specified constraints
 Interpretability and usability
二〇二五年五月三十一日 8
 Measure the Quality of
Clustering
 Dissimilarity/Similarity metric: Similarity is expressed
in terms of a distance function, which is typically
metric: d(i, j)
 There is a separate “quality” function that measures
the “goodness” of a cluster.
 The definitions of distance functions are usually very
different for interval-scaled, boolean, categorical,
ordinal and ratio variables.
 Weights should be associated with different variables
based on applications and data semantics.
 It is hard to define “similar enough” or “good enough”
 the answer is typically highly subjective.

二〇二五年五月三十一日 9
 Similarity and Dissimilarity
Between Objects

 Distances are normally used to measure the

similarity or dissimilarity between two data
objects
 Some popular
d (i, j) q (| ones
x  x |include:
q
 | x  x Minkowski
|q ... | x  x |distance:
q
)
i1 j1 i2 j2 ip jp

where i = (xi1, xi2, …, xip) and j = (xj1, xj2, …, xjp)

are two p-dimensional data objects, and q is a
positive integer
 , j) | x  x |  |distance
If q = 1, d isd (iManhattan x  x | ... | x  x |
i1 j1 i2 j 2 ip jp

二〇二五年五月三十一日 10
 Similarity and Dissimilarity
Between Objects (Cont.)

 If q = 2, d is Euclidean distance:
d (i, j)  (| x  x |2  | x  x |2 ... | x  x |2 )
i1 j1 i2 j2 ip jp
 Properties

d(i,j)  0

d(i,i) = 0

d(i,j) = d(j,i)

d(i,j)  d(i,k) + d(k,j)
 Also one can use weighted distance, parametric
Pearson product moment correlation, or other
disimilarity measures.

二〇二五年五月三十一日 11
 Major Clustering Approaches

 Partitioning algorithms: Construct various partitions and

then evaluate them by some criterion
 Hierarchy algorithms: Create a hierarchical decomposition
of the set of data (or objects) using some criterion
 Density-based: based on connectivity and density
functions
 Grid-based: based on a multiple-level granularity structure
 Model-based: A model is hypothesized for each of the
clusters and the idea is to find the best fit of that model to
each other

二〇二五年五月三十一日 12
 Partitioning Algorithms: Basic
Concept
 Partitioning method: Construct a partition of a
database D of n objects into a set of k clusters
 Types:
 k-means (MacQueen’67): Each cluster is
represented by the center of the cluster
 k-medoids or PAM (Partition around medoids)
(Kaufman & Rousseeuw’87): Each cluster is
represented by one of the objects in the cluster

二〇二五年五月三十一日 13
 K-mean approach

 One more input k is required. There are

many variants of k-mean.
 Sum-of squares criterion
 minimize k

 c( S )
i 1
i

|Si | |Si |
c( Si )   (d ( x , x )) i
r
i
s
2

r 1 s 1
二〇二五年五月三十一日 14
 An example of k-mean approach

 K-Means Algorithm Steps:

 Decide on a value for K

 Initialize the K cluster centers

 Decide the class memberships of the

N objects by assigning them to the

nearest cluster centers.
 Re-estimate the cluster centers.

 Repeat until no change in previous

iteration.

二〇二五年五月三十一日 15
 The K-Means Clustering Method

二〇二五年五月三十一日 16
 Examples

二〇二五年五月三十一日 17
 Examples

二〇二五年五月三十一日 18
 Examples

二〇二五年五月三十一日 19
 Examples

二〇二五年五月三十一日 20
 Examples

二〇二五年五月三十一日 21
 The K-Means Clustering Method
 Example
10 10

9 9

8 8

7 7

6 6

5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

10 10

9 9

8 8

7 7

6 6

5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

二〇二五年五月三十一日 22
 Comments on the K-Means Method
 Strength
 With large number of variables, k-means may be

computationally faster than hierarchical

clustering.
 k-means may produce tighter clusters than

hierarchical clustering, especially if the clusters

are globular.
 Weakness
 Difficulty in comparing the quality.

 Predicting the k value - Fixed number of clusters

 Does not work well with non-globular value.

二〇二五年五月三十一日 23
 The K-Medoids Clustering Method
 Find representative objects, called medoids, in
clusters
 PAM (Partitioning Around Medoids, 1987)

starts from an initial set of medoids and
iteratively replaces one of the medoids by one of
the non-medoids if it improves the total distance
of the resulting clustering

PAM works effectively for small data sets, but
does not scale well for large data sets
 CLARA (Kaufmann & Rousseeuw, 1990)
 CLARANS (Ng & Han, 1994): Randomized sampling
 Focusing + spatial data structure (Ester et al., 1995)
二〇二五年五月三十一日 24
 PAM (Partitioning Around Medoids)
(1987)

 PAM (Kaufman and Rousseeuw, 1987), built in Splus

 Use real object to represent the cluster
 Select k representative objects arbitrarily
 For each pair of non-selected object h and selected
object i, calculate the total swapping cost TCih
 For each pair of i and h,
 If TCih < 0, i is replaced by h

Then assign each non-selected object to the
most similar representative object
 repeat steps 2-3 until there is no change
二〇二五年五月三十一日 25
CLARA (Clustering Large Applications)
(1990)
 CLARA (Kaufmann and Rousseeuw in 1990)

Built in statistical analysis packages, such as S+
 It draws multiple samples of the data set, applies PAM on
each sample, and gives the best clustering as the output
 Strength: deals with larger data sets than PAM
 Weakness:

Efficiency depends on the sample size

A good clustering based on samples will not
necessarily represent a good clustering of the whole
data set if the sample is biased

二〇二五年五月三十一日 26
 CLARANS (“Randomized” CLARA)
(1994)
 CLARANS (A Clustering Algorithm based on Randomized
Search) (Ng and Han’94)
 CLARANS draws sample of neighbors dynamically
 The clustering process can be presented as searching a
graph where every node is a potential solution, that is, a
set of k medoids
 If the local optimum is found, CLARANS starts with new
randomly selected node in search for a new local optimum
 It is more efficient and scalable than both PAM and CLARA
 Focusing techniques and spatial access structures may
further improve its performance (Ester et al.’95)

二〇二五年五月三十一日 27
 Cluster Analysis

 What is Cluster Analysis?

 Types of Data in Cluster Analysis
 A Categorization of Major Clustering Methods
 Partitioning Methods
 Hierarchical Methods
 Density-Based Methods
 Grid-Based Methods
 Model-Based Clustering Methods
 Outlier Analysis
 Summary
二〇二五年五月三十一日 28
 Hierarchical Clustering
 Use distance matrix as clustering criteria. This
method does not require the number of clusters k
as an input, but needs a termination condition
Step 0 Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4
agglomerative
(AGNES)
a ab
b abcde
c
cde
d
de
e
divisive
Step 4 Step 3 Step 2 Step 1 Step 0 (DIANA)
二〇二五年五月三十一日 29
 AGNES (Agglomerative Nesting)
 Introduced in Kaufmann and Rousseeuw (1990)
 Implemented in statistical analysis packages, e.g.,
Splus
 Use the Single-Link method and the dissimilarity
matrix.
 Merge nodes that have the least dissimilarity
 Go on in a non-descending fashion
10 10 10

 9

8
Eventually all nodes belong to the same cluster 9

8
9

7 7 7

6 6 6

5 5 5

4 4 4

3 3 3

2 2 2

1 1 1

0 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

二〇二五年五月三十一日 30
 A Dendrogram Shows How the
Clusters are Merged Hierarchically

Decompose data objects into a several levels of nested

partitioning (tree of clusters), called a dendrogram.

A clustering of the data objects is obtained by cutting the

dendrogram at the desired level, then each connected
component forms a cluster.

二〇二五年五月三十一日 31
 DIANA (Divisive Analysis)

 Introduced in Kaufmann and Rousseeuw (1990)

 Implemented in statistical analysis packages, e.g.,
Splus
 Inverse order of AGNES
 Eventually each node forms a cluster on its own
10 10
10

9 9
9
8 8
8

7 7
7
6 6
6

5 5
5
4 4
4

3 3
3
2 2
2

1 1
1
0 0
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

二〇二五年五月三十一日 32
 Hierarchical Clustering

Method Distance metric

A B C D E
A 0 10 12 10 7 Single-link min | p  q |
B 0 4 4 13 pCi , qC j
C 0 6 15
D 0 13 Complete-link max | p  q |
pCi , qC j
E 0
Average-link 1
ni n j
 | p  q |
pCi qC j

Centriod | mi  m j |

二〇二五年五月三十一日 33
More on Hierarchical Clustering
Methods
 Major weakness of agglomerative clustering methods
 do not scale well: time complexity of at least O(n2),

where n is the number of total objects

 can never undo what was done previously

 Integration of hierarchical with distance-based

clustering
 BIRCH (1996): uses CF-tree and incrementally

adjusts the quality of sub-clusters

 CURE (1998): selects well-scattered points from the

cluster and then shrinks them towards the center of

the cluster by a specified fraction
 CHAMELEON (1999): hierarchical clustering using

dynamic modeling
二〇二五年五月三十一日 34
 BIRCH (1996)
 Birch: Balanced Iterative Reducing and Clustering using
Hierarchies, by Zhang, Ramakrishnan, Livny
(SIGMOD’96)
 Incrementally construct a CF (Clustering Feature) tree, a
hierarchical data structure for multiphase clustering
 Phase 1: scan DB to build an initial in-memory CF tree
(a multi-level compression of the data that tries to
preserve the inherent clustering structure of the data)

Phase 2: use an arbitrary clustering algorithm to
cluster the leaf nodes of the CF-tree
 Scales linearly: finds a good clustering with a single scan
and improves the quality with a few additional scans
 Weakness: handles only numeric data, and sensitive to
the order of the data record.
二〇二五年五月三十一日 35
 Drawbacks of Distance-Based
Method

 Drawbacks of square-error based clustering method


Consider only one point as representative of a
cluster

Good only for convex shaped, similar size and
density, and if k can be reasonably estimated
二〇二五年五月三十一日 36
 CHAMELEON

 CHAMELEON: hierarchical clustering using dynamic

modeling, by G. Karypis, E.H. Han and V. Kumar’99
 Measures the similarity based on a dynamic model
 Two clusters are merged only if the

interconnectivity and closeness (proximity)

between two clusters are high relative to the
internal interconnectivity of the clusters and
closeness of items within the clusters
 A two phase algorithm
 1. Use a graph partitioning algorithm: cluster

objects into a large number of relatively small sub-

clusters
 2. Use an agglomerative hierarchical clustering

algorithm: find the genuine clusters by repeatedly

combining these sub-clusters
二〇二五年五月三十一日 37
 Overall Framework of
CHAMELEON
Construct
Sparse Graph Partition the Graph

Data Set

Merge Partition

Final Clusters

二〇二五年五月三十一日 38
 . Cluster Analysis

 What is Cluster Analysis?

 Types of Data in Cluster Analysis
 A Categorization of Major Clustering Methods
 Partitioning Methods
 Hierarchical Methods
 Density-Based Methods
 Grid-Based Methods
 Model-Based Clustering Methods
 Outlier Analysis
 Summary
二〇二五年五月三十一日 39
 Density-Based Clustering
Methods
 Clustering based on density (local cluster
criterion), such as density-connected points

Major features:

Discover clusters of arbitrary shape

Handle noise

One scan

Need density parameters as termination
condition
 Several interesting studies:

DBSCAN: Ester, et al. (KDD’96)

OPTICS: Ankerst, et al (SIGMOD’99).

DENCLUE: Hinneburg & D. Keim (KDD’98)

CLIQUE: Agrawal, et al. (SIGMOD’98)
二〇二五年五月三十一日 40
Density-Based Clustering:
Background
 Two parameters:
 Eps: Maximum radius of the neighbourhood
 MinPts: Minimum number of points in an Eps-
neighbourhood of that point
 NEps(p): {q belongs to D | dist(p,q) <= Eps}
 Directly density-reachable: A point p is directly
density-reachable from a point q wrt. Eps, MinPts
if

1) p belongs to NEps(q) p MinPts = 5
q
 2) core point condition: Eps = 1 cm
|NEps (q)| >= MinPts
二〇二五年五月三十一日 41
 Density-Based Clustering:
Background (II)
 Density-reachable:
 A point p is density-reachable p
from a point q wrt. Eps, MinPts if p1
there is a chain of points p1, …, q
pn, p1 = q, pn = p such that pi+1 is
directly density-reachable from pi

 Density-connected
p q
 A point p is density-connected to
a point q wrt. Eps, MinPts if there
is a point o such that both, p and o
q are density-reachable from o
wrt. Eps and MinPts.
二〇二五年五月三十一日 42
 DBSCAN: Density Based Spatial
Clustering of Applications with
Noise

 Relies on a density-based notion of cluster: A

cluster is defined as a maximal set of density-
connected points
 Discovers clusters of arbitrary shape in spatial
databases with noise
Outlier

Border
Eps = 1cm
Core MinPts = 5

二〇二五年五月三十一日 43
 DBSCAN: The Algorithm

 Arbitrary select a point p

 Retrieve all points density-reachable from p wrt
Eps and MinPts.
 If p is a core point, a cluster is formed.
 If p is a border point, no points are density-
reachable from p and DBSCAN visits the next
point of the database.
 Continue the process until all of the points have
been processed.
二〇二五年五月三十一日 44
 . Cluster Analysis

 What is Cluster Analysis?

 Types of Data in Cluster Analysis
 A Categorization of Major Clustering Methods
 Partitioning Methods
 Hierarchical Methods
 Density-Based Methods
 Grid-Based Methods
 Model-Based Clustering Methods
 Outlier Analysis
 Summary
二〇二五年五月三十一日 45
 Grid-Based Clustering Method
 Using multi-resolution grid data structure
 Several interesting methods
 STING (a STatistical INformation Grid
approach) by Wang, Yang and Muntz (1997)
 WaveCluster by Sheikholeslami, Chatterjee,
and Zhang (VLDB’98)

A multi-resolution clustering approach
using wavelet method
 CLIQUE: Agrawal, et al. (SIGMOD’98)

二〇二五年五月三十一日 46
 STING: A Statistical Information
Grid Approach
 Wang, Yang and Muntz (VLDB’97)
 The spatial area area is divided into rectangular
cells
 There are several levels of cells corresponding to
different levels of resolution

二〇二五年五月三十一日 47
 STING: A Statistical
Information Grid Approach (2)
 Each cell at a high level is partitioned into a number of
smaller cells in the next lower level
 Statistical info of each cell is calculated and stored
beforehand and is used to answer queries
 Parameters of higher level cells can be easily
calculated from parameters of lower level cell

count, mean, s, min, max

type of distribution—normal, uniform, etc.
 Use a top-down approach to answer spatial data
queries

Start from a pre-selected layer—typically with a small
number of cells
 For each cell in the current level compute the
confidence interval
二〇二五年五月三十一日 48
 STING: A Statistical
Information Grid Approach (3)
 Remove the irrelevant cells from further
consideration
 When finish examining the current layer, proceed
to the next lower level
 Repeat this process until the bottom layer is
reached
 Advantages:

Query-independent, easy to parallelize,
incremental update

O(K), where K is the number of grid cells at the
lowest level
 Disadvantages:

All the cluster boundaries are either horizontal
or vertical, and no diagonal boundary is
二〇二五年五月三十一日 49
 WaveCluster (1998)
 Sheikholeslami, Chatterjee, and Zhang (VLDB’98)
 A multi-resolution clustering approach which
applies wavelet transform to the feature space

A wavelet transform is a signal processing
technique that decomposes a signal into
different frequency sub-band.
 Both grid-based and density-based
 Input parameters:

# of grid cells for each dimension

the wavelet, and the # of applications of
wavelet transform.
二〇二五年五月三十一日 50
 WaveCluster (1998)
 How to apply wavelet transform to find clusters
 Summaries the data by imposing a
multidimensional grid structure onto data
space
 These multidimensional spatial data objects

are represented in a n-dimensional feature

space
 Apply wavelet transform on feature space to

find the dense regions in the feature space

 Apply wavelet transform multiple times which

result in clusters at different scales from fine

to coarse
二〇二五年五月三十一日 52
 What Is Wavelet (2)?

二〇二五年五月三十一日 53
 Quantization

二〇二五年五月三十一日 54
 Transformation

二〇二五年五月三十一日 55
 WaveCluster (1998)
 Why is wavelet transformation useful for clustering
 Unsupervised clustering

It uses hat-shape filters to emphasize region

where points cluster, but simultaneously to
suppress weaker information in their boundary
 Effective removal of outliers

 Multi-resolution

 Cost efficiency

 Major features:
 Complexity O(N)

 Detect arbitrary shaped clusters at different

scales
 Not sensitive to noise, not sensitive to input order

 Only applicable to low dimensional data

二〇二五年五月三十一日 56
 CLIQUE (Clustering In QUEst)
 Agrawal, Gehrke, Gunopulos, Raghavan (SIGMOD’98).
 Automatically identifying subspaces of a high
dimensional data space that allow better clustering than
original space
 CLIQUE can be considered as both density-based and
grid-based

It partitions each dimension into the same number of
equal length interval

It partitions an m-dimensional data space into non-
overlapping rectangular units

A unit is dense if the fraction of total data points
contained in the unit exceeds the input model
parameter

A cluster is a maximal set of connected dense units
within a subspace
二〇二五年五月三十一日 57
 CLIQUE: The Major Steps
 Partition the data space and find the number of points
that lie inside each cell of the partition.
 Identify the subspaces that contain clusters using the
Apriori principle
 Identify clusters:
 Determine dense units in all subspaces of interests
 Determine connected dense units in all subspaces
of interests.
 Generate minimal description for the clusters
 Determine maximal regions that cover a cluster of

connected dense units for each cluster

 Determination of minimal cover for each cluster

二〇二五年五月三十一日 58
 Salary
(10,000)

=3
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

20

二〇二五年五月三十一日
30
40
50

Sa
l ar
Vacation

y
60
age

30
Vacation
(week)
50
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
20
30
40

age
50
60
age

59
 Strength and Weakness of
CLIQUE

 Strength
 It automatically finds subspaces of the highest

dimensionality such that high density clusters exist

in those subspaces
 It is insensitive to the order of records in input and

does not presume some canonical data distribution

 It scales linearly with the size of input and has

good scalability as the number of dimensions in

the data increases
 Weakness
 The accuracy of the clustering result may be

degraded at the expense of simplicity of the

method
二〇二五年五月三十一日 60
 . Cluster Analysis

 What is Cluster Analysis?

 Types of Data in Cluster Analysis
 A Categorization of Major Clustering Methods
 Partitioning Methods
 Hierarchical Methods
 Density-Based Methods
 Grid-Based Methods
 Model-Based Clustering Methods
 Outlier Analysis
 Summary
二〇二五年五月三十一日 61
 Model-Based Clustering
Methods
 Attempt to optimize the fit between the data and some
mathematical model
 Statistical and AI approach
 Conceptual clustering


A form of clustering in machine learning

Produces a classification scheme for a set of unlabeled
objects

Finds characteristic description for each concept (class)
 COBWEB (Fisher’87)

A popular a simple method of incremental conceptual
learning

Creates a hierarchical clustering in the form of a
classification tree

Each node refers to a concept and contains a probabilistic
description of that concept
二〇二五年五月三十一日 62
 COBWEB Clustering
Method

A classification tree

二〇二五年五月三十一日 63
 More on Statistical-Based
Clustering
 Limitations of COBWEB

The assumption that the attributes are
independent of each other is often too strong
because correlation may exist

Not suitable for clustering large database data –
skewed tree and expensive probability
distributions
 CLASSIT

an extension of COBWEB for incremental
clustering of continuous data

suffers similar problems as COBWEB
 AutoClass (Cheeseman and Stutz, 1996)

Uses Bayesian statistical analysis to estimate
the number of clusters

Popular in industry
二〇二五年五月三十一日 64
 Other Model-Based
Clustering Methods
 Neural network approaches
 Represent each cluster as an exemplar, acting

as a “prototype” of the cluster

 New objects are distributed to the cluster

whose exemplar is the most similar according

to some dostance measure
 Competitive learning
 Involves a hierarchical architecture of several

units (neurons)
 Neurons compete in a “winner-takes-all”

fashion for the object currently being

presented
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 Model-Based Clustering Methods

二〇二五年五月三十一日 66
 Self-organizing feature maps
(SOMs)

 Clustering is also performed by having

several units competing for the current
object
 The unit whose weight vector is closest to
the current object wins
 The winner and its neighbors learn by
having their weights adjusted
 SOMs are believed to resemble
processing that can occur in the brain
 Useful for visualizing high-dimensional
data in 2- or 3-D space
二〇二五年五月三十一日 67
 . Cluster Analysis

 What is Cluster Analysis?

 Types of Data in Cluster Analysis
 A Categorization of Major Clustering Methods
 Partitioning Methods
 Hierarchical Methods
 Density-Based Methods
 Grid-Based Methods
 Model-Based Clustering Methods
 Outlier Analysis
 Summary
二〇二五年五月三十一日 68
 What Is Outlier Discovery?
 What are outliers?
 The set of objects are considerably dissimilar

from the remainder of the data

 Example: Sports: Michael Jordon, Wayne

Gretzky, ...
 Problem
 Find top n outlier points

 Applications:
 Credit card fraud detection

 Telecom fraud detection

 Customer segmentation

 Medical analysis

二〇二五年五月三十一日 69
 Outlier Discovery:
Statistical
Approaches

 Assume a model underlying distribution that

generates data set (e.g. normal distribution)
 Use discordancy tests depending on
 data distribution

 distribution parameter (e.g., mean, variance)

 number of expected outliers

 Drawbacks
 most tests are for single attribute

 In many cases, data distribution may not be known

二〇二五年五月三十一日 70
 Outlier Discovery: Distance-
Based Approach

 Introduced to counter the main limitations imposed

by statistical methods

We need multi-dimensional analysis without
knowing data distribution.
 Distance-based outlier: A DB(p, D)-outlier is an
object O in a dataset T such that at least a fraction
p of the objects in T lies at a distance greater than
D from O
 Algorithms for mining distance-based outliers

Index-based algorithm

Nested-loop algorithm

Cell-based algorithm
二〇二五年五月三十一日 71
 Outlier Discovery: Deviation-
Based Approach
 Identifies outliers by examining the main
characteristics of objects in a group
 Objects that “deviate” from this description are
considered outliers
 sequential exception technique
 simulates the way in which humans can
distinguish unusual objects from among a
series of supposedly like objects
 OLAP data cube technique
 uses data cubes to identify regions of
anomalies in large multidimensional data
二〇二五年五月三十一日 72
 . Cluster Analysis

 What is Cluster Analysis?

 Types of Data in Cluster Analysis
 A Categorization of Major Clustering Methods
 Partitioning Methods
 Hierarchical Methods
 Density-Based Methods
 Grid-Based Methods
 Model-Based Clustering Methods
 Outlier Analysis
 Summary
二〇二五年五月三十一日 73
 Problems and Challenges
 Considerable progress has been made in scalable
clustering methods
 Partitioning: k-means, k-medoids, CLARANS
 Hierarchical: BIRCH, CURE
 Density-based: DBSCAN, CLIQUE, OPTICS
 Grid-based: STING, WaveCluster
 Model-based: Autoclass, Denclue, Cobweb
 Current clustering techniques do not address all the
requirements adequately
 Constraint-based clustering analysis: Constraints exist
in data space (bridges and highways) or in user
queries
二〇二五年五月三十一日 74
 Constraint-Based Clustering
Analysis

 Clustering analysis: less parameters but more user-

desired constraints, e.g., an ATM allocation problem

二〇二五年五月三十一日 75
 Summary

 Cluster analysis groups objects based on their

similarity and has wide applications
 Measure of similarity can be computed for various
types of data
 Clustering algorithms can be categorized into
partitioning methods, hierarchical methods, density-
based methods, grid-based methods, and model-
based methods
 Outlier detection and analysis are very useful for fraud
detection, etc. and can be performed by statistical,
distance-based or deviation-based approaches
 There are still lots of research issues on cluster
analysis, such as constraint-based clustering
二〇二五年五月三十一日 76
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Cluster Analysis. John Wiley & Sons, 1990.
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