Reservoir Rocks and

Hydrocarbon Traps
Requirements for hydrocarbon
formation:
- Environment rich in organic content
- Rapid subsidence of these sediments
Reservoir Rocks and
Hydrocarbon Traps
Reservoir Rocks most suited:
Sandstones: ocean bottoms rich in
marine organisms.
Dolomite Formations: found in carbonate
reefs.
Hydrocarbon traps may be:
Structural: faults, saltdomes, etc.
Stratigraphic: reefs, sand lenses, river
channels.
Fault
Trap
Porosity

In this case:
P  = 10%

500 cubic
ft of rock 50 cu ft

Porosity is the ratio of the fluid to the total

rock volume.
 Permeability
Permeability is the capacity of a porous
medium to transmit fluids.

p = 1 at 14.7 psi

Flow

A permeability of 1 Darcy will allow flow across a

unit cube of 1 cc per second of a liquid of 1
centipoises viscosity. When the pressure drop
across the cube is 1 atmosphere.
A more convenient unit for oil well use is the millidarcy = .001 Darcies.
WELL CONTROL
• PRIMARY

• SECONDARY

• TERTIARY
 PRIMARY
• PRIMARY WELL CONTROL IS
WHEN A COLUMN OF
WEIGHTED FLUID IS USED TO
BALANCE THE PRESSURE
EXERTED FROM THE
FORMATION BEING DRILLED,
WITHOUT THE FORMATION
FRACTURING.
 SECONDARY
• IF THE PRESSURE OF THE FLUIDS IN
THE WELLBORE FAIL TO PREVENT
FORMATION FLUIDS ENTERING THE
WELLBORE, THE WELL WILL FLOW.
THIS PROCESS IS STOPPED BY USING
A “BLOW OUT PREVENTER” TO
PREVENT THE ESCAPE OF
WELLBORE FLUIDS FROM THE
WELL.
RAM BOP- CAMERON ‘U’
RAMS
 Shear Rams
•Features:
Features:
– Both shears drill pipe and seals the hole
– Capacity to cut through 6-5/8” drill pipe
– Emergency equipment
– Top seal and Top seal
side packers
– Can seal on
open hole
Side Packers

Large frontal area

CAMERON D ANNULAR
 TERTIARY
• TERTIARY WELL CONTROL
DESCRIBES THE THIRD LINE OF
DEFENCE.WHERE PRIMARY &
SECONDARY HAVE FAILED. AN
UNDERGROUND BLOWOUT FOR
EXAMPLE. HOWEVER IN WELL
CONTROL IT IS NOT USED AS A
QUALITATIVE TERM !
TERTIARY CONT….
• UNUSUAL WELL CONTROL OPS
• A kick is taken with the kick off bottom
• Drill pipe plugs off during the kill op
• There is no drill pipe in the hole
• Lost circulation
• Excessive casing pressure
• Plugged & stuck off bottom
• Gas percolation without gas expansion
 HYDROSTATIC
PRESSURE
IS

FLUID DENSITY
X
TRUE VERTICAL DEPTH
CONVERSION FACTOR
SINCE THE PRESSURE IS MEASURED IN
PSI & THE DEPTH IS MEASURED IN
FEET, IT IS CONVENIENT TO CONVERT
MUD WEIGHTS FROM POUNDS PER
GALLON PPG TO A PRESSURE
GRADIENT PSI/FT

THE CONVERSION FACTOR IS

0.052
PRESSURE GRADIENT PSI/FT =
FLUID DENSITY X 0.052

HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE PSI =

DENSITY IN PPG X 0.052 X TRUE
VERTICALDEPTH
NORMAL FORMATION PRESSURE

FORMATION PRESSURE OR PORE

PRESSURE IS SAID TO BE NORMAL WHEN
IT IS CAUSED BY THE HYDROSTATIC
HEAD OF, THE SUB - SURFACE WATER
CONTAINED IN THE FORMATION AND
THERE IS PORE TO PORE PRESSURE
COMMUNICATION WITH THE
ATMOSPHERE
AVERAGE NORMAL
FORMATION
GRADIENTS
Artesian Well
(RAIN)

HYDROSTATIC
HEAD OF WELL
SANDSTONE
AQUIFIER HEAD OF WATER
COLUMN
ABNORMAL
FORMATION
PRESSURE

?
ABNORMAL PRESSURE IS EVERY
PRESSURE WHICH DOES NOT
CONFORM WITH THE DEFINITION
GIVEN FOR NORMAL PRESSURE
 CAUSES OF ABNORMAL
FORMATION PRESSURE
• UNDER-COMPACTION IN SHALES
• SALT BEDS
• TECTONIC CAUSES
• FAULTING
• DIAPIRISM
• RESERVOIR STRUCTURE
 UNDER-COMPACTION IN
SHALES
IF THE BALANCE BETWEEN THE RATE OF COMPACTION
AND FLUID EXPULSION IS DISRUPTED SUCH THAT
FLUID REMOVAL IS IMPEDED, THEN FLUID PRESSURES
WITHIN THE SHALE WILL INCREASE. THE INABILITY OF
SHALE TO EXPEL WATER AT A SUFFICIENT RATE
RESULTS IN A MUCH HIGHER POROSITY THAN
EXPECTED FOR THE DEPTH OF SHALE BURIAL IN THAT
AREA.
 SALT BEDS
CONTINUOUS SALT DEPOSITIONS OVER LARGE
AREAS CAN CAUSE ABNORMAL PRESSURES. SALT
IS TOTALLY IMPERMIABLE TO FLUIDS AND BEHAVE
PLASTICALLY. IT DEFORMS AND FLOWS BY
RECRYSTALLISATION. ITS PROPERTIES OF
PRESSURE TRANSMISSION ARE MORE LIKE FLUIDS
THAN SOLIDS, THEREBY EXERTING PRESSURES
EQUAL TO THE OVERBURDEN LOAD IN ALL
DIRECTIONS. THE FLUIDS IN THE UNDERLYING
FORMATIONS CANNOT ESCAPE AS THERE IS NO
COMMUNICATION TO THE SURFACE AND THUS THE
FORMATIONS BECOME OVER PRESSURED.
 MINERALISATION
THE ALTERATION OF SEDIMENTS AND THEIR
CONSTITUENT MINERALS CAN RESULT IN
VARIATIONS OF THE TOTAL VOLUME OF THE
MINERALS PRESENT. AN INCREASE IN THE VOLUME
OF THESE SOLIDS WILL RESULT IN AN INCREASED
FLUID PRESSURE. AN EXAMPLE OF THIS OCCURS
WHEN ANHYDRITE IS LAID DOWN. IF IT LATER
TAKES ON WATER CRYSTALLISATION, ITS
STRUCTURE CHANGES TO BECOME GYPSUM, WITH
A VOLUME INCREASE OF AROUND 35 PERCENT.
 TECTONIC CAUSES
IS A COMPACTING FORCE THAT IS APPLIED
HORIZONTALLY IN SUBSURFACE FORMATIONS. IN
NORMAL FORMATION ENVIRONMENTS WATER IS
EXPELLED FROM CLAYS AS THEY ARE BEING
COMPACTED WITH INCREASING OVERBURDEN
PRESSURES. IF HOWEVER AN ADDITIONAL
HORIZONTAL COMPACTING FORCE SQUEEZES THE
CLAYS LATERALLY AND IF FLUIDS ARE UNABLE TO
ESCAPE AT A RATE EQUAL TO THE REDUCTION IN
PORE VOLUME THE RESULT WILL BE AN INCREASE
IN PORE PRESSURE.
 FAULTING
FAULTS MAY CAUSE ABNORMALLY HIGH
PRESSURES. FORMATION SLIPPAGE MAY BRING A
PERMEABLE FORMATION LATERALLY AGAINST AN
IMPERMEABLE FORMATION PREVENTING THE
FLOW OF FLUIDS. NON-SEALING FAULTS MAY
ALLOW FLUIDS TO MOVE FROM A DEEPER
PERMEABLE FORMATION TO A SHALLOWER
FORMATION. IF THE SHALLOWER FORMATION IS
SEALED THEN IT WILL BE PRESSURISED FROM THE
DEEPER ZONE.
 DIAPIRISM

A SALT DIAPIRISM IS AN UPWARD INTRUSION OF

SALT TO FORM A SALT DOME. THIS UPTHRUST
DISTURBS THE NORMAL LAYERING OF SEDIMENTS
AND OVER PRESSURES CAN OCCUR DUE TO THE
FOLDING AND FAULTING OF THE INTRUDED
FORMATIONS.
RESERVOIR STRUCTURE

ABNORMALLY HIGH PRESSURES CAN DEVELOP IN

NORMALLY COMPACTED ROCKS. IN A RESERVOIR
IN WHICH A HIGH RELIEF STRUCTURE CONTAINS
OIL OR GAS, AN ABNORMALLY HIGH PRESSURE
GRADIENT AS MEASURED RELATIVE TO SURFACE
WILL EXIST.
An anticlinal type of folded structure is
shown here. Anticline differs from a
dome in being long and narrow.
FORMATION FRACTURE
PRESSURE
Causes of kicks
Drilling
INSUFFICIENT MUD WEIGHT

•ABNORMAL PRESSURED FORMATIONS

•SHALLOW GAS SANDS
Causes of kicks
Tripping
Improper Hole Fill
SWABBING/SURGING
DURING PIPE MOVEMENT
FACTORS THAT AFFECT
SWAB & SURGE
PRESSURES
• PULLING SPEED OF PIPE

• MUD PROPERTIES

• VISCOSITY

• HOLE GEOMETRY
 TRIP MARGIN

A TRIP MARGIN IS A SAFETY FACTOR

ADDED TO THE HYDROSTATIC
PRESSURE OF A MUD COLUMN, WHICH
COMPENSATES FOR THE APL
REDUCTION WHEN THE PUMPS ARE
SWITCHED OFF
Recognising a Kick While Tripping

Flow into the wellbore will cause improper hole fill

up, if this is seen a flow check should be performed.

• If the flow check is positive then the well should be

shut in.

•If the flow check is negative the drill string should be

run back to bottom to circulate bottoms
up (stripping may have to be used here).
WELL INTERVENTION PRESSURE CONTROL
Situations that can mask a kick:

• Mud weight adjustments while drilling.

• Mud transfers while drilling.

• Partial lost circulation.

• Solids control equipment and degassing mud.

• Spills and leaks in surface equipment.

• Drain back.

• Pump start up and shut down.

SPECIAL SITUATIONS

• DRILL STEM TESTING

• DRILLING INTO AN ADJACENT

WELL

• EXCESSIVE DRILLING THROUGH

GAS SANDS
EARLY WARNING SIGNS
• INCREASE IN THE DRILLING ROP
• INCREASE TORQUE & DRAG
• DECREASE IN SHALE DENSITY
• INCREASE IN CUTTING SIZE & SHAPE
• MUD PROPERTY CHANGES ie:-
WATER TRACES, CHANGE IN PH &
SOMETIMES CALCIUM
Kick Definitions

Induced Kick - zero

SIDPP

Under Balance Kick

- when we use the
term SIDPP, the
well is under
balance with the bit
on bottom and the
inside of the
drillstring full of
fp5000
mud. fp5500
Kick Pressures: Shut-In
Conditions
Shut-In Drillpipe Pressure (SIDP)

800 psi Shut-In Casing Pressure (SICP)

1220
psi

TVD
ft
Kick Pressures: Shut-In
Conditions
800 psi 1220
SIDPP SICP psi

PLUS

PLUS
Pmud a 8613 psi

PLUS
Pmud D/S
9100 psi Pgas a 67 psi
Total Acting
= 9900 psi Down = 9900 psi
Formation
Pressure Acting Up
Gas Behaviour in Water
Base Mud
Wait & weight Method
Advantages of the Wait and Weight
Method

• Lowest wellbore pressures, and lowest surface

pressures - this means less equipment stress.

• Minimum 'on-choke' circulating time - less chance

of washing out the choke.

Disadvantages of the Wait and

Weight Method
• Considerable waiting time while weighting up gas
migration.

• If large increases in mud weight required, this is

difficult to do uniformly in one stage.
Driller’s Method
DRILLER'S METHOD TECHNIQUE

First Circulation: Pump the kick out of the well, using existing mud
weight.

Second Circulation: Pump kill weight mud around the well.

Advantages of Driller's Method:

• Minimum Arithmetic
• Minimum Waiting Around Time -can start kill at once
• Minimum Information Required

Disadvantages of Driller's Method:

• Highest Annular Pressure Produced

• Maximum Well Under Pressure Time
• Longest 'On-choke' Time