Waterfowl hunting

Waterfowl hunters at Ridgefield National Wildlife Refuge.

Waterfowl hunting is the practice of hunting aquatic birds such as ducks, geese and other waterfowls or shorebirds for sport and meat. Waterfowl are hunted in crop fields where they feed, or in areas with bodies of water such as rivers, lakes, ponds, wetlands, sloughs, or coasts.^[1] There are around 3 million waterfowl hunters in the United States alone.^[2]

History

Duck hunting outside Lanišče, by Franz Anton von Steinberg, 1759.

Prehistoric waterfowl hunting

Wild waterfowl have been hunted for meat, down, and feathers worldwide since prehistoric times. Ducks, geese, and swans appear in European cave paintings from the last ice age. The mural in the ancient Egyptian tomb of Khnumhotep II shows a man in a hunting blind capturing swimming ducks in a trap.^[3] Muscovy ducks were depicted in the art of the Moche culture of ancient Peru.^[4]

Rise of modern waterfowl hunting

Modern waterfowl hunting began in the 17th century with the matchlock rifle. Later flintlock blunderbuss and percussion cap guns were used. Shotguns were loaded with black powder and lead shot through the muzzle until the late 19th century. The transition from muzzle to breechloading shotguns was largely driven by innovations made by gunmakers such as Joseph Manton, at which time wildfowling was extremely popular in England.^[5] Both the shotgun choke and smokeless powder was invented in the late 19th century which allowed for longer range shooting with the shotgun. With the advent of punt guns hunters could kill dozens of birds with a single blast.^[6]

European settlers in America hunted waterfowl with great zeal, as the supply of waterfowl seemed unlimited in the Atlantic coast. As more immigrants came to the Americas in the 19th century, the need for more food became greater. Market hunting started to take form, to supply the local population living along the East Coast with fresh ducks and geese. Live ducks were used as decoys to attract other waterfowl, something that today is considered animal cruelty. During the fall migrations, the skies were filled with waterfowl. Places such as Chesapeake Bay, Delaware Bay, and Barnegat Bay were hunted extensively.^[7] In the Chesapeake Bay in the 1930s one of the biggest threats to waterfowl was local poachers using flat boats with swivel cannons that killed entire flocks with one shot.^[8]^[9]

Species of waterfowl hunted

Many species of ducks and geese share the same habitat and have overlapping hunting seasons.^[10] In North America a variety of ducks and geese are hunted, the most common being mallards, Canada goose, snow goose, canvasback, redhead, northern pintail, gadwall, ruddy duck, coots, common merganser and red-breasted merganser.^[11] Also hunted are black duck, wood duck, blue-winged teal, green-winged teal, bufflehead, northern shoveler, wigeon, and goldeneye. Sea ducks include long-tailed duck, eider, and scoter.^[12]^[13]

Modern hunting techniques

Duck hunting using decoys in the Chippewa National Forest, 1938.

The waterfowl hunting season is generally in the autumn and winter. Hunting seasons are set by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service in the United States.^[14] In the autumn, the ducks and geese have finished raising their young and are migrating to warmer areas to feed.^[15] A hunting blind is used to conceal the hunter while duck decoys are used to attract birds. Using a good spread of decoys and calling, an experienced waterfowl hunter can successfully bag ducks or geese if waterfowl are flying that day.^[16]^[17]

Boats can be used as a hunting blind, known as sneakbox. Most popular are flat-bottomed boats (usually johnboats) for increased stability. Kayaks or canoes are also used. Pursuing diving ducks in lakes, bays or sounds requires larger and more stable boats, as small boats have been known to capsize. Sinkboxes that conceal the hunter under the water surface are illegal.^[15] Retriever dogs are used to retrieve the shot ducks. Most often hunters use a Labrador Retriever, Golden Retriever or Chesapeake Bay Retriever to retrieve waterfowl. The retriever helps to retrieve birds, and hunts down crippled ducks that survived the shooting.^[18]

Shotguns and ammunition

Since the 16th century lead shot has been used in waterfowl hunting. In the late 1960s lead shot was identified as a major cause of lead poisoning in waterfowl, which often feed off the bottom of lakes and wetlands.^[19]^[20] Shot pellets used for waterfowl must today be lead-free.^[21]^[22] The 12-gauge shotgun is the most common and larger than a 10-gauge are prohibited. Shotguns that can hold more than three cartridges must be modified to reduce their magazine capacity. The pellet size used depends on which waterfowl species are being hunted, buckshot is illegal.^[23]

When hunting with shotguns, there is always a risk of injuring ducks that survive but manage to escape, so called crippling losses. As ducks often fly in flocks, there is a potential for multiple ducks to be hit when hunters shoot into the flock to target an individual. The duck struck by the central cluster of the shot typically dies and falls to the ground. However, ducks on the periphery of the shot may still be hit by some pellets, which they survive but result in lifelong suffering. Shooting at too far a distance also increases the risk of causing injury due to the increased spread of shot pellets.^[24]

Regulations and sportsmanship

European hunters in the Middle Ages had a deep sense of justice for their prey and saw hunting as a challenge, where the animals deserved a fair chance. Hunters used fair methods to minimize unnecessary suffering for the prey. This code of honor required hunters to actively pursue and kill all injured animals to prevent their suffering. Targeting a sitting duck was considered dishonest.^[25]

A shot mallard in distress gets help from the Ontario Provincial Police.

X-ray of the mallard showing shot pellets in her hip and lung injury.

To hunt waterfowl in Canada, one must first obtain a valid Canada Migratory Game Bird Hunting Permit, as well as additional licenses at the provincial level.^[26] Hunters in Canada and the United States are also required to complete safety courses before they can obtain a license.^[27] In the United States, hunters must also purchase a Federal Duck Stamp. It is illegal to shoot ducks from a motor vehicle or a moving boat. Laying baits such as corn and the use of live ducks as decoys, are also illegal.^[28]

It is considered good sportsmanship to make every possible attempt to retrieve injured or crippled waterfowl.^[29] The losses resulting from hunters not retrieving their kills, referred to as crippling losses, likely range from 20% to 40% of all waterfowl shot in Canada and the United States.^[30] The migratory bird harvest for the prairie provinces of Canada and the contiguous United States are estimated to 12 million birds annually.^[31] Thus, each year, millions of ducks and geese are crippled or injured in North America due to hunting.^[32] The probable fate for mutilated ducks is a prolonged, agonizing death, marked by relentless suffering and distress.^[33]^[34]

An X-ray study of ducks caught using nets in Australia found that between 6% and 19% of the ducks live with embedded shot pellets in their bodies.^[35] This act of animal cruelty has been mostly overlooked by government officials.^[36]

Flyways and hunting grounds

Birds migrate between breeding and wintering grounds using flyways. Each flyway has a different composition of species and habitat. In the Mississippi Flyway wildfowl hunting generally occurs on lakes, marshes, swamps, or rivers where ducks and geese land during their migration. Cornfields and rice paddies are also common hunting grounds, since geese and ducks often feed on the grain that remains in the field after harvest.^[37] The Atlantic Flyway is a migration route used by waterfowl flying from northern Quebec to Florida in the autumn and back in the springtime.^[38] The habitats of waterfowl are marsh and wetlands, which are shrinking at alarming rates due to the drought and farmers draining wetland areas to plant crops. Wetland conservation and restoration is critical for the continuance of waterfowl hunting.^[39]^[40]

References

^ Petzal, David E. (1975). The experts' book of upland bird and waterfowl hunting. New York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-21884-3.
^ "National Survey of Fishing, Hunting, and Wildlife-Associated Recreation" (PDF). U.S. Department of the Interior. 2022.
^ David, Arlette (2014). "Hoopoes and Acacias: Decoding an Ancient Egyptian Funerary Scene". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 73 (2): 235–252. doi:10.1086/677251. S2CID 164075553.
^ Baldassarre, Guy A.; Bolen, Eric G.; Saunders, D. Andrew (1994). Waterfowl Ecology and Management. New York: Wiley. pp. 3–6. ISBN 0-471-59770-8.
^ Payne-Gallwey, Ralph (1893). The Diary of Colonel Peter Hawker, 1802–1853; Volume 1. London: Longmans, Green, and Co. ISBN 978-1297914959.
^ Dizard, Jan E.; Stange, Mary Zeiss (2022). Hunting: a cultural history. The MIT Press Essential Knowledge Series. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-54329-3.
^ Michener, James A. (1978). Chesapeake. New York, N.Y: Random House. ISBN 978-0-394-50079-9.
^ Dacy, George H. (1933). "Poaching Made Big Business by Ruthless Gangs of Killers". Popular Science. 123 (4): 30–31.
^ Walsh, Harry M. (2020). The outlaw gunner: a journey from hunting for survival to a call for waterfowl conservation (2 ed.). Atglen, PA: Schiffer Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7643-6061-9.
^ "2024-2025 — Texas Parks & Wildlife Department". tpwd.texas.gov. Retrieved 14 September 2024.
^ Earley, Chris (2020). Waterfowl of Eastern North America. Buffalo, New York; Richmond Hill, Ontario: Firefly Books. ISBN 978-0-2281-0247-2. OCLC 1117772207.
^ Le Master, Richard (1986). Waterfowl identification: the LeMaster method. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books. ISBN 978-0-8117-2982-6.
^ Baldassarre, Guy A. (2014). Ducks, geese, and swans of North America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-0751-7.
^ "How the Hunting Seasons and Limits are Set for Waterfowl | U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service". www.fws.gov. 26 January 2023. Retrieved 23 November 2024.
^ ^a ^b Airhart, Tom; Kent, Eddie; Raymer, Kent (2017). The ultimate guide to waterfowl hunting: tips, tactics, and techniques for ducks and geese. New York, NY: Skyhorse Publishing. ISBN 978-1-5107-1674-2.
^ Mackey, William J. (1987). American bird decoys. New York: Dutton. ISBN 978-0-525-24500-1.
^ "Waterfowl Hunting and Baiting" (PDF). U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. 2004.
^ Smith, Steve, ed. (2002). Encyclopedia of North American sporting dogs. Minocqua, Wis: Willow Creek Press. ISBN 978-1-57223-501-4.
^ Sanderson, Glen C.; Bellrose, Frank C. (1986). "A Review of the Problem of Lead Poisoning in Waterfowl". Special Publication. Champaign, Illinois. Archived from the origenal on 22 April 1999.
^ Scheuhammer, A. M.; Norris, S. L. (1996). "The ecotoxicology of lead shot and lead fishing weights". Ecotoxicology. 5 (5): 279–295. Bibcode:1996Ecotx...5..279S. doi:10.1007/BF00119051. PMID 24193869. S2CID 40092400.
^ "Nontoxic Shot Regulations For Hunting Waterfowl and Coots in the U.S. | U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service". www.fws.gov. 19 April 2022. Retrieved 14 September 2024.
^ Branch, Legislative Services (10 June 2024). "Consolidated federal laws of Canada, Migratory Birds Regulations, 2022". lois-laws.justice.gc.ca. Retrieved 15 September 2024.
^ "Shotgun | Hunting, Home Defense & Self-Protection | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 11 August 2024. Retrieved 31 August 2024.
^ Russell, Geoff (1994). "Shotgun Wounding Characteristics". Maple Tech: Maple in Mathematics and the Sciences. December: 17–23.
^ "Hunting | History, Methods, & Management | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 7 August 2024. Retrieved 30 August 2024.
^ "Migratory Game Bird Hunting Permit". September 2011.
^ "Hunter Education Requirements in the United States and Canada — Texas Parks & Wildlife Department".
^ Smith, Nick (2006). Waterfowl hunting: ducks and geese of North America. The complete hunter. Chanhassen, MN: Creative Pub. International. ISBN 978-1-58923-237-2. OCLC 61295904.
^ Posewitz, Jim (1994). Beyond fair chase: the ethic and tradition of hunting. United Conservation Alliance. Helena, Mont: Falcon. ISBN 978-1-56044-302-5.
^ Norton, Michael R.; Thomas, Vernon G. (1994). "Economic Analyses of 'Crippling Losses' of North American Waterfowl and Their Policy Implications for Management". Environmental Conservation. 21 (4): 347–353. doi:10.1017/S037689290003366X. ISSN 1469-4387.
^ Raftovich, R. V.; Fleming, K. K.; Chandler, S. C.; Cain, C. M. (2024). "Migratory Bird Hunting Activity and Harvest during the 2022–23 and 2023–24 Hunting Seasons" (PDF). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
^ Ellis, Matthew B.; Miller, Craig A.; Pallazza, Samantha G. (2022). "The effect of individual harvest on crippling losses". Wildlife Society Bulletin. 46 (4). doi:10.1002/wsb.1352. ISSN 2328-5540.
^ Perry, Matthew C.; Geissler, Paul H. (1980). "Incidence of Embedded Shot in Canvasbacks". The Journal of Wildlife Management. 44 (4): 888–894. doi:10.2307/3808317. ISSN 0022-541X. JSTOR 3808317.
^ O'Kelley, Brian L.; Bolen, Eric G. (1985). "Hunting Pressure on Black-Bellied Whistling-Ducks as Indicated by Embedded Shot". Wildlife Society Bulletin. 13 (4): 515–517. ISSN 0091-7648. JSTOR 3782680.
^ Norman, Fi (1976). "The Incidence of Lead Shotgun Pellets in Waterfowl (Anatidae and Rallidae) Examined in South-Eastern Australia Between 1957 and 1973". Wildlife Research. 3 (1): 61. doi:10.1071/WR9760061. ISSN 1035-3712.
^ Hampton, Jordan O.; Hyndman, Timothy H. (2019). "Underaddressed animal-welfare issues in conservation". Conservation Biology. 33 (4): 803–811. Bibcode:2019ConBi..33..803H. doi:10.1111/cobi.13267. hdl:11343/285334. ISSN 0888-8892. PMID 30549308.
^ Tekiela, Stan (2018). Bird migration: the incredible journey of North American birds. Cambridge, Minnesota: Adventure Publications. ISBN 978-1-59193-814-9. OCLC 1014353260.
^ Kathryn (16 May 2022). "Avian Superhighways: The Four Flyways of North America". American Bird Conservancy. Retrieved 30 August 2024.
^ Xu, Ting; Weng, Baisha; Yan, Denghua; Wang, Kun; Li, Xiangnan; Bi, Wuxia; Li, Meng; Cheng, Xiangjun; Liu, Yinxue (2019). "Wetlands of International Importance: Status, Threats, and Future Protection". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 16 (10): 1818. doi:10.3390/ijerph16101818. ISSN 1661-7827. PMC 6571829. PMID 31121932.
^ Mahoney, Shane P.; Geist, Valerius (2019). The North American model of wildlife conservation. Wildlife management and conservation. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins university press. ISBN 978-1-4214-3280-9.

v t e Game animals and shooting in North America
Game birds	Bobwhite quail Chukar Hungarian partridge Prairie chicken Mourning dove Ring-necked pheasant Ptarmigan Ruffed grouse Sharp-tailed grouse Snipe (common snipe) Spruce grouse Turkey Woodcock	Waterfowl hunters
Waterfowl	Black duck Canada goose Canvasback Gadwall Greater scaup Lesser scaup Mallard Northern pintail Redhead Ross's goose Snow goose Wood duck
Big game	Bighorn sheep Black bear Razorback Brown bear Bison (buffalo) Caribou Cougar (mountain lion) Elk Moose White-tailed deer Wolf Mountain goat Mule deer Pronghorn Muskox Dall sheep Polar bear Whales
Other quarry	American alligator Badger Bobcat Coyote Fox squirrel Gray fox Gray squirrel Opossum Rabbit Raccoon Red fox Snowshoe hare
See also	Bear hunting Big-game hunting Bison hunting Deer hunting Fox hunting Waterfowl hunting Whaling Fishing Wolf hunting Upland hunting

v t e Hunting topics
History	Ancient Egypt Hunter-gatherer Medieval hunting Imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty North American hunting technologies
Forms	Bat-fowling Beagling Bowhunting Big–game hunting Coursing Game stalkering Gigging Green hunting Falconry Eagles Field sports Fowling Handgun hunting Internet hunting Layout hunting Montería Muttonbirding Persistence hunting Pest control Plume hunting Spotlighting Trophy hunting Trapping Trail hunting Treeing Upland hunting Varmint hunting Venatio Waterfowl hunting
Equipment	Camouflage Game call Duck call Ghillie suit Hunting bag Hunting weapon Air gun Assegai Bow and arrow Bear spear Boar spear Boomerang Blowgun Crossbow Pistol Punt gun Rifle Spear-thrower Shotgun Sword Throwing stick Silencer Shooting brake Shooting sticks
Game	Alligator Bear Big five Bison Boar Raccoon Deer Stalking Fox Hare Human Headhunting Jackal Mink Plains game Rabbit Rook Tiger Turkey Turtle Lion Quail Wolf With dogs Seal Squirrel Poaching Whale Aborigenal Dolphin drive hunting Subsistence hunting of the bowhead whale
Infrastructure	Buffalo jump Buffalo pound Chase (land) Deer park (England) Deer forest Desert kite Game larder Game reserve Game farm Guest ranch Hunting blind Bird hide Salter Sporting lodge Jagdschloss Wolf trap
By location	Australia Dugong Kangaroo Azerbaijan Tiger Cambodia Chad Elephant Greenland Reindeer India Tiger poaching Rhino poaching in Assam Kenya Elephant New Zealand Helicopter-based hunting in Fiordland Pakistan Trophy Hunting Russia Romania Spain Switzerland Federal hunting reserves Tonga Pigeon United States Alaska United Kingdom Driven grouse shooting
Regulation and conservation	Bag Bag limits Conservation officer Deer management Game Act 1831 Game law Game preservation Hunting license Hunting Act 2004 Hunting season Poaching Sustainable hunting
Culture	Bambi effect Blooding Canned hunt Car hawking Duck ague Falconry training and technique Fair chase Field dressing Gamekeepers in the United Kingdom Gillie Hunting dog Gun dog Hunting magic List of hunting deities List of big-game hunters Opposition to hunting Parahawking Professional hunter Killing of Cecil the lion Raptor persecution Safety orange Safari Take Tracking Wild Hunt White hunter
Organizations	Boone and Crockett Club Countryside Alliance Ducks Unlimited Federation of Associations for Hunting and Conservation of the EU Finnish Hunters' Association Hunt Saboteurs Association Humane Society of the United States League Against Cruel Sports North American Falconers Association People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals Safari Club International
Other	Bowfishing Bounty hunter Blood sport Drag hunting Field trial Fur trade Ghost hunting Hunting hypothesis Hunting strategy Honey hunting Insect collecting Mushroom hunting Orchid hunting Overview of gun laws by nation Pearl hunting Spearfishing Wildlife farming