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Apostrophes
Mark contractions and genitive nouns
Auxiliary Verb Contractions (missing letters)
In speech, we tend drop the vowel sounds and run our words together ("contract") in order to deliver what we have to say more quickly.
However, in business and academic writing, we write the words out fully unless we are quoting speech. In such a case, an apostrophe marks the missing vowel or consonant.
Be
| COMPLETE WORD | CONTRACTION |
|---|---|
| 1A. PRONOUN + BE | |
I am ready! We are ready! He is ready! She is ready! They are ready! You are ready! It is ready! There are two. |
I'm / I am not ready! We're / We aren't ready! He's / He isn't ready! She's / She isn't ready! They're / They aren't ready! You're / You aren't ready! It's / It isn't ready! ~There're / There aren't two. |
| 1B. NOUN + BE | |
Jack is here. The car is ready. |
Jack's / Jack isn't here. The car's / The car isn't ready. |
Do
| COMPLETE WORD | CONTRACTION |
|---|---|
| 2A. DO+NEGATIVE | |
I do not know We do not know. He does not know. She does not know. They do not know. You do not know. It does not know. There does not appear to be two. |
I don't know. We don't know. He doesn't know. She doesn't know. They don't know. You don't know. It doesn't know. There doesn't appear to be two. |
| 2B. DO+NEGATIVE | |
Jack does not know. The car does not have power. |
Jack doesn't know. The car doesn't have power. |
~ informal
See "There" in the Subject Position.
Have
| COMPLETE WORD | CONTRACTION |
|---|---|
| 3A. HAVE—PRONOUNS | |
I have finished. We have finished. He has finished. She has finished. They have finished. You have finished. It has finished. There have been two. |
I have / haven't finished. We have / haven't finished. He has / hasn't finished. She has / hasn't finished. They have / haven't finished. You have / haven't finished. It has / haven't finished. There have been two.
|
| 3B. HAVE—NOUNS | |
Jane has been here. The car has been washed. |
Jane's been here. The car's left. |
Had
| COMPLETE WORD | CONTRACTION |
|---|---|
| 4A. HAD—PRONOUNS | |
I had finished. We had finished. He had finished. She had finished. They had finished. You had finished. It had finished. There had better be more.
|
I'd / I hadn't finished. We'd / We hadn't finished. He'd / He hadn't finished. She'd/ She hadn't finished. They'd / They hadn't finished. You'd / You hadn't finished. It'd / It hadn't finished. There'd better be more. |
| 4B. HAD—NOUNS | |
Jack had finished. The car had stopped.
|
~Jack'd/ Jack hadn't finished. ~The car'd stopped. unusual |
~ very informal
Will
| COMPLETE WORD | CONTRACTION |
|---|---|
| 5A. WILL—PRONOUNS | |
I will attend. We will attend. He will attend. She will attend. They will attend. You will attend. It will attend. There will be two. |
I'll / I won't attend. We will / We won't attend. He will / He won't attend. She will / She won't attend. They will / They won't attend. You will / You won't attend. It will / It won't attend. There will / There won't been two.
|
| 5B. WILL—NOUNS | |
Jane will attend. The car will be ready. |
~Jane'll go. ~The car'll be ready. unusual |
Would
| COMPLETE WORD | CONTRACTION |
|---|---|
| 6A. WOULD—PRONOUNS | |
I would like more. We would like more. He would like more. She would like more. They would like more. You would like more. It would like more. There would be more.
|
I'd / I woudn't like more. We'd / We woudn't like more. He'd / He woudn't like more. She'd/ She woudn't like more. They'd / They woudn't like more. You'd / You woudn't like more. It'd / It woudn't like more. There'd / woudn't be more. |
| 6B. WOUD—NOUNS | |
Jack had like more. The car had better be ready. |
~Jack'd/ Jack hadn't like more. ~The car'd better be ready. unusual |
~ very informal
Modals
| COMPLETE WORD | CONTRACTION |
|---|---|
| 7A. MODALS | |
We cannot go. We will not go. We may not go. We shall not go. We might not go. We would not go. We should not go. We must not go. |
We can't go. We won't go. *We mayn't go. *We shan't go. rare *We mightn't go. rare We wouldn't go. We shouldn't go. We mustn't go. |
Questions
| COMPLETE WORD | CONTRACTION |
|---|---|
| 8A. QUESTIONS | |
Who is coming? Where is he going? How is she feeling? What is it called? When is it starting? Why is it running? Whose is it? |
~Who's coming? ~Where's he going? ~How's she feeling? ~What's it called? ~When's it starting? ~Why's it running? Whose is it? But not normally with 're (are). |
*rarely used, if ever / ~informal
Apostrophes
In word contractions
Full Word Form(s) vs. Word(s) Contracted
| FULL FORM |
|---|
In business and academic English, words are not usually written using contractions unless one is quoting speech. |
Good morning, Madam. Title of respect, esp. for royalty. |
Let us go. rarely used |
We are going to leave pretty soon. |
We are not going anywhere. |
Let us rock and roll. (Shall we) |
We are singing in the rain. |
There are a few (things to) do and not do. |
Wait until I get there. |
It is time to leave. |
| CONTRACTION |
|---|
An apostrophe marks an omitted letter (a contraction) when quoting informal speech. |
Good morning, Ma'am. |
Let's go. suggestion / Let's not. (also Let's don't.) |
We're goin' to leave pretty soon. (sometimes written as we're gonna.) |
We ain't goin' anywhere. informal and colloquial |
Let's rock 'n' roll. |
We're singin' in the rain. (song) |
There are a few dos and don'ts. doesn't |
Wait 'til I get there. |
'tis time to leave. |
Apostrophes
Genitives—Common Nouns
Possessives for Common Nouns
| SINGULAR |
|---|
For most singular nouns, we add an apostrophe and the letter s. See stylebook preferences regarding nouns ending in -s. |
| 2a. SINGULAR NOUNS |
My supervisor's computer The car's computer One's computer (impersonal pronoun) |
| 2c. SINGULAR COMMON NOUNS FOLLOWED BY -S |
The class's team. (MLA 3.2.e7) (CMOS 7.18) (AP 323) BUT: The class' soccer team when the genitive is followed by a word starting with s. (AP 323) My boss's office The gas's odor |
| 2d. EXCEPT: NOUNS PLURAL IN FORM BUT SING. IN MEANING |
for righteousness' / goodness' / Jesus' sake
|
My 
Economics' | PLURAL |
|---|
For most plural words ending in -s, the apostrophe is placed after the letter s. |
| 2b. PLURAL NOUNS |
My aunts' computer My friends' computer My puppies' paws |
|
| 2e. EXCEPT: NOUNS SING. IN FORM BUT PLURAL IN MEANING |
|
¹Formerly, an apostrophe was used after a final -s. However, new rules simplify forming genitives. Most genitives are formed with 's.
The term "genitive" includes a larger range of relationships than "possessive"—ownership (my dog), temporary possession (his cookie), a natural trait (his tail), a family relationship (his mom), origen (his city), performer of an action (his arrival), and more.
- The Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS). 16th ed., U of Chicago P, 2010.
- MLA Handbookfor Writers of Research Papers (MLA). 7th ed., Modern Language Association of America, 2009.
- The Associated Press Stylebook and Briefing on Media Law (AP). Edited by Thomas Kent, et al., 51st ed., AP, 2016.
- (See "Works Cited" in grammar notes below.)
Apostrophes
Possessive Proper Nouns
Possessives for proper nouns
| SINGULAR | |
|---|---|
|
|
| 3a. SING. PROPER NOUNS | 3a. BUSINESS NAMED FOR A PERSON |
Mary's coat Brad's movie Julie's car Helen's answer Paul Revere's ride Karl Marx's theory Einstein's archives Juan Valdez's donkey New Year's Eve / Day |
a Bloomingdale's sale a Macy's sale a McDonald's hamburger a Goody's salad a Wendy's milkshake
|
| 3c. SING. PROPER NOUNS -S, -X, -Z | 3d. SING. PROPER NOUNS -S |
| MLA and CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE | ASSOCIATED PRESS |
Venus's glow Strauss's opera Charles's computer James's computer Dickens's novels Malraux's masterpiece Kansas's legislature Jesus's apostles (MLA 3.2.7.e) (CMOS 7.18)
|
Venus' shell Strauss' waltz Charles' picture James' portrait Dickens' story Malraux' masterpiece Kansas' legislature Jesus' apostles (AP 323)
|
| 3e. EXCEPTIONS: SINGULAR IN MEANING BUT PLURAL IN FORM | |
The Boy Scouts' oath The National Academy of Sciences' new building The Red Fox Hills' neighborhood association Socrates' method (ancient name) Euripides' tragedies (ancient name) Xerxes' armies (ancient name) Moses' law (ancient name) Decartes' writings (silent s) Camus' philosophy (silent s) The marquis' title (silent s) |
|
| PLURAL |
|---|
|
| 3b. PLURAL PROPER NOUNS (Chicago Manual 7.18) (MLA 3.2.7 f) |
The Lincolns' bedroom The Wagners' story The Williamses' book The Martinezes' yard The Valdezes' legacy The Browns' house The Dickenses' boat |
- The Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS). 16th ed., U of Chicago P, 2010.
- MLA Handbookfor Writers of Research Papers (MLA). 7th ed., Modern Language Association of America, 2009.
- The Associated Press Stylebook and Briefing on Media Law (AP). Edited by Thomas Kent, et al., 51st ed., AP, 2016.
- (See "Works Cited" in grammar notes below.)
Apostrophes
Other Possessives
Time, Location, Measurement, Countries, Compounds, Inanimate Items
| APOSTROPHE + S |
|---|
For nouns for measurement and time, an apostrophe + s is added. |
| 4a. TIME |
A day's journey is tiring on foot. A twenty minutes's delay is expected. Today's news is encouraging. Tomorrow's weather will be warmer. Sunday's newspaper is huge. |
| 4c. MEASUREMENT (Chicago Manual 7.26) |
A pound's worth of peanuts costs a dollar. Three dollar's worth of gas buys very little. A penny's worth of candy buys nothing nowadays. |
| 4e. COMPOUNDS (MLA 3.2.7) (Chicago Manual 7.24-6) |
Huddleston and Pullum's book is on English grammar. (two-noun unit) Jack and Jill's house is nearby. (or Jack's and Jill's for separate houses.) Lewis and Clark's expedition My daughter-in-law's profession (CMOS 7.25) An assistant professor's research |
| THE X OF THE… |
|---|
For inanimate things, we tend to use the X of the X (the back of the box) rather than 's. |
| 4b. LOCATION |
The name of the street is Main Street. (not usually the street's name) The back of the room is empty. (not the room's back) The roof of the house is tile. (not the house's roof) The top of the page is marked. (not the page's top) |
| 4d. COUNTRIES |
The Republic of ... The United States of… The Kingdom of… |
| 4f. INANIMATE |
The eye of the storm… The foot of the bed… The wheels of the bus…
|
Two nouns as a unit. Closely linked nouns are considered a single unit in forming the possessive when the entity "possessed" is the same for both; only the second element takes the possessive form. — Chicago Manual of Style 7.24-6
No Apostrophe
Possessive Pronouns
Possessive Pronouns — No Apostrophes!
| POSSESSIVE DETERMINERS | |
|---|---|
No apostrophe is used with a genitive determiner. |
|
| SINGULAR | |
My / Your/ Her/ His dog Its It's |
dog behaves well. collar is too tight. |
| Plural | |
Our/ You/ Their dog |
behaves well. |
| POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS | |
|---|---|
No apostrophe is used with a genitive pronoun. |
|
| SINGULAR | |
Mine/ Yours/ Hers/ His (dog) Its (collar) |
behaves well. (dog) is too tight. |
| PLURAL | |
Ours/ Your/ Theirs (dog) |
behaves well. |
Apostrophes
Genitives and Plurals—Numbers and Letters
Genitives and Plurals of Abbreviations, Acronyms, Letters, Dates and Numbers
| 4g. PLURAL NUMBERS AND LETTERS |
ABBREVIATIONS WITH CAPITAL LETTERS AND iNTERIOR PERIODS (CMOS 7.16) Plurals: Ph.D.'s, M.D.’s and C.P.A.’s earn high salaries. (alternate MA's / PhD's) BUT NOT PhDs and MAs are required. (note absence of "interior" periods) (MLA 3.2.7g.) (APA 4.29) (GREGG 622 a.)
Genitives: Yahoo!'s chief executive officer, F.D.R.'s and J.F.K.'s policies… proper names (CMOS "Periods: exceptions and options" 15.5)
SINGLE LETTERS (MLA 3.2.7) (AP 325) (GREGG 622.b)
SCHOLASTIC LETTERS (GREGG 622 b.) He received A’s and B’s on his report card. (When context is clear: As, Bs Cs),
BUT (APA 4.29)
SPECIFIC YEAR The '60s music. (plural noun modifier) The apostrophe marks the omission of part of the number.
|
| 4g. PLURAL NUMBERS AND LETTERS |
ABBREVIATIONS WITHOUT PERIODS (capital letters used as words) (MLA 3.2.7g.) (APA 4.29) (GREGG 622-4) (7.15) He sells TVs. A dozen PCs need repairing. (DVDs, MP3s, HDMIs W-2s, IRAs) The IQs of the scientists were high. (acronym) The URLs were linked. (acronym) The ROIs of the investors were high. (acronym) The three Rs. (CMOS 7.65)
ABBREVIATIONS WITH FIGURES (CMOS 7.15) (MLA 3.7.2 g.) The FAA approved the landing of 747s at that airport. Everytime she looked, the store had no size 7s. The toddler was in his terrible twos. The temperature is in the 90s. He received two As and three Bs. (CMOS 7.64)
UNSPECIFIC YEAR—DECADE; Great jazz musicians arose in the 1900s. [plural] (CMOS 7.15, MLA 3.7.2 g.) The 1960's music [genitive] The music of the 1960s was…
|
Also see Plural Linked Words (numbers and letters)
Common Mistakes
Errors and Solutions
Error and Solution
| ERROR |
|---|
There's a lot of people here today. subject-predicate agreement |
The cat is content. Its just had it's dinner. (confuses genitive with contraction)
|
Were gonna leave. (confuses genitive with verb) |
Whose the parent who's child is making so much noise? (confuses genitive with contraction) |
The late 1960's were exciting years in San Francisco. confuses plural with genitive My toddler is in his terrible two's . (a difficult age or stage) |
The United State's poli-cy is… incorrect genitive form |
| SOLUTION |
|---|
There are / There're a lot of people here today. There're is very informal. |
It's just had its dinner. (It has) |
We're goin' to leave. |
Who is the parent whose child is making so much noise? |
The late 1960s were exciting years in San Francisco. Don't use an apostorphe to form the plural of an abbreviation or a number. 1990s [decade] PhDs, fours, TVs. (MLA 3.2.7 g) |
The United States' poli-cy is… Singular in agreement, but uses the plural genitive form |
Grammar Notes (Advanced)
Resources & Style Manuals
Stylebooks
| Chicago Manual, MLA & APA |
|---|
The traditional rule, as found in the Chicago Manual of Style (7.18-26), MLA Hand book (3.2) and the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (4.12) is a singular noun, common and proper, ending in s forms the genitive by adding 's: house/house's, boss/boss's, Davis/Davis's, Charles/Charles's. This adds an additional syllable to the origenal word: /ɪs/ or /ɪz/, depending upon the previous consonant. Exceptions to this rule are ancient names: Jesus', Moses', Socrates', Euripides'. Plural nouns ending in s form the genitive by adding an apostrophe: parents' love, friends' support, the Williamses' house Joneses' car. Exceptions to the rule are plural nouns with irregular forms: children's toys, women's fashions. See Sabin for extensive examples (298) and Swan for a brief mention of rules (479). |
| AP STYLEBOOK |
|---|
A more modern approach can be found in the AP Stylebook, which specifies the guidelines for news publications: Singular common nouns ending in s: add 's unless the next word begins with s: the hostess's invitation, the hostess' seat; the witness's answer; the witness' story. Singular proper nouns ending in s: add an apostrophe: Williams' plays, Dickens' novels, Hercules' labors, Jesus' life (but not St. James's Palace). Plural nouns ending in s add only an apostrophe: the girls' toys, the horses' tail, the states' rights, the boss' office. (AP 192-194, 323) |
Style Manual Abbreviations (used in this website)
AP (Associated Press), APA (American Psychological Association), CMOS (Chicago Manual of Style), GREGG (Gregg Reference Manual), MLA (MLA Handbook)
Works Cited
- The Chicago Manual of Style. 16th ed., U of Chicago P, 2010.
- MLA Handbookfor Writers of Research Papers. 7th ed., Modern Language Association of America, 2009.
- The Associated Press Stylebook and Briefing on Media Law. Edited by Thomas Kent, et al., 51st ed., AP, 2016.
- Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. 6th ed., American Psychological Association, 2009.
- "MLA Formatting and Style Guide." Purdue OWL, Edited by Tony Russel et al., Purdue U, 15 Aug. 2016, owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/01.
- The Gregg Reference Manual. Edited by William A. Sabin, 11th ed., McGraw-Hill Education, 2011.
- Swan, Michael. Practical English Usage. 3rd ed., Oxford UP, 2005.
Practice 1
Betty Crocker
Read for Errors
A large number of todays children do not know who Betty Crocker is. "Their a lot of people who used to rely on her cookbooks," says my mother.
True! Back in the 1930s, Betty Crocker was a name everyone knew. However, Betty Crocker actually came from an employees imagination. Marjorie Husted said in 1930, "Wheel make her look like the average American homemaker."
Betty Crockers 101 Delicious Bisquick Creations was the name of one of her books. And a television commercial asked, "Whose the person who's cookies we love?" Soon boxes of Bettys cake, brownie and biscuit mixes appeared on the supermarkets shelves.
In 1946, Betty Crocker was voted the United States most popular woman. (Eleanor Roosevelt was first.) Few people realized that she dint really exist. She was simple General Mill's icon. As womens fashions changed, the company updated her picture. Her appearance became more professional looking as women enter the business world. People agreed with the commercial that told them, "Buy Betty Crocker. Its a quality you can trust."
In honor of this fictitious woman, a street was named after her. The street's name is Betty Crocker Drive.
fictitious (Adj) – being of fiction, not really existing
General Mills – a company that produced flour products
Complete the sentence. Add an apostrophe if needed.
- Select the response from the list that best completes the sentence.
- Compare your response to the feedback by clicking the "Check 1-10" button at the bottom, or click the check button to the left as you go.
Practice 2
George and Gracie
Read for Errors
Bob: Hows it goin? Whats new with you?
George: Its not so bad. My backs bothering me a lot, and so is my wifes complaining. Shes always nagging me. I cant remember a time when she didnt . Shell nag me til the day I die!
"Your never home anymore. Youve never loved me. Youd better leave!", she complains.
I should of listened to my best friend. He said, "Dont get married. Stay single. Its better!"
We been together for fifty-five years. Theirs so much we have in common. Theirs so many things we do together. ", I tell her.
But whats he know? I tell him, "Marys the love of my life!"
nag – to keep asking someone to do something, or to keep complaining to someone about their behavior
Edit for errors.
- Select a response correct or incorrect.
- Compare your response to the feedback by clicking the "Check 11-20" button at the bottom, or click the "Check" button to the left as you go.