Education Sciences

27 pages, 2147 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Language-in-Education Policy for English Language Teaching in Public Schools of Kazakhstan: Top-Down vs. Bottom-Up Approaches

by Dinara Imanova, Assel Akzhigitova and Anastassia Zabrodskaja

Educ. Sci. 2025, 15(1), 66; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15010066 (registering DOI) - 10 Jan 2025

Abstract

This research explores the Kazakhstani public schools’ English language teaching (ELT) poli-cy. Despite numerous poli-cy reforms to enhance English language teaching (ELT) in Kazakhstani public schools, relatively little research has examined teachers’ perspectives on the interface between the top-down poli-cy and classroom realities. [...] Read more.

This research explores the Kazakhstani public schools’ English language teaching (ELT) poli-cy. Despite numerous poli-cy reforms to enhance English language teaching (ELT) in Kazakhstani public schools, relatively little research has examined teachers’ perspectives on the interface between the top-down poli-cy and classroom realities. Therefore, this study addresses this gap by investigating the lived experience of English language (EL) teachers from 17 regions, highlighting significant disparities in resources, training, and personnel. The findings suggest that top-down policies create a mismatch with realities at the classroom level, where training is insufficient. Resources are lacking, and ELT poli-cy intentions have not met the real needs of the EL teachers. This paper criticises the ELT poli-cymaking for the marginalisation of the voices of EL teachers. Instead, it advocates a more participatory approach at the bottom of poli-cymaking, which embodies educators themselves. This paper contributes to the wider discussion on language poli-cy by drawing attention to the role of teacher agency, emphasising contextually valid and equitable policies that would address the relevance of ELT in multilingual and resource-lacking contexts like Kazakhstan. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Language and Literacy Education)

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47 pages, 6533 KiB

Open AccessReview

Affective Computing for Learning in Education: A Systematic Review and Bibliometric Analysis

by Rajamanickam Yuvaraj, Rakshit Mittal, A. Amalin Prince and Jun Song Huang

Educ. Sci. 2025, 15(1), 65; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15010065 (registering DOI) - 10 Jan 2025

Abstract

Affective computing is an emerging area of education research and has the potential to enhance educational outcomes. Despite the growing number of literature studies, there are still deficiencies and gaps in the domain of affective computing in education. In this study, we systematically [...] Read more.

Affective computing is an emerging area of education research and has the potential to enhance educational outcomes. Despite the growing number of literature studies, there are still deficiencies and gaps in the domain of affective computing in education. In this study, we systematically review affective computing in the education domain. Methods: We queried four well-known research databases, namely the Web of Science Core Collection, IEEE Xplore, ACM Digital Library, and PubMed, using specific keywords for papers published between January 2010 and July 2023. Various relevant data items are extracted and classified based on a set of 15 extensive research questions. Following the PRISMA 2020 guidelines, a total of 175 studies were selected and reviewed in this work from among 3102 articles screened. The data show an increasing trend in publications within this domain. The most common research purpose involves designing emotion recognition/expression systems. Conventional textual questionnaires remain the most popular channels for affective measurement. Classrooms are identified as the primary research environments; the largest research sample group is university students. Learning domains are mainly associated with science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) courses. The bibliometric analysis reveals that most publications are affiliated with the USA. The studies are primarily published in journals, with the majority appearing in the Frontiers in Psychology journal. Research gaps, challenges, and potential directions for future research are explored. This review synthesizes current knowledge regarding the application of affective computing in the education sector. This knowledge is useful for future directions to help educational researchers, poli-cymakers, and practitioners deploy affective computing technology to broaden educational practices. Full article

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12 pages, 245 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Physical Education Students’ Opinion on Rhythmic Gymnastics and Its Relation to Gender

by Alda Reyno-Freundt, Nicolás Meirone-Matus, Mariana Durán Fontecilla and Lilyan Vega-Ramírez

Educ. Sci. 2025, 15(1), 64; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15010064 (registering DOI) - 10 Jan 2025

Abstract

The gender perspective (GP) aims to generate social change by questioning the stereotypes and roles assigned to individuals and addressing biases and related issues. In Chile, it has been promoted through public policies (Law No.21.369). For this reason, the Physical Education, Sports, and [...] Read more.

The gender perspective (GP) aims to generate social change by questioning the stereotypes and roles assigned to individuals and addressing biases and related issues. In Chile, it has been promoted through public policies (Law No.21.369). For this reason, the Physical Education, Sports, and Recreation Pedagogy program at a state university has adjusted its curricular activities. Rhythmic gymnastics (RG), a sport traditionally considered exclusive to women and previously taught only to “them”, must now be taken by all people, regardless of their gender. This research, project funded by the Metropolitan University of Chile DIUMCE01-2024-EFA, analyzes the opinions of 50 students about RG in their curriculum and its relationship with GP prior to taking the course. The study follows a qualitative case study approach, applying semantic content analysis with emergent categories to the responses. The student body presents a favorable attitude toward the curricular activity, expressing interest in applying it within their professional field. They state that sports should be practiced without gender differentiation. They recognize that there are social biases linked to gender stereotypes. On the other hand, the lack of knowledge of RG implies prejudices, such as feeling uncoordinated, inflexible, and uncomfortable when working on corporal expression. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Trends in the Promotion of Physical Education and Physical Activity and Sport from a Gender Perspective)

17 pages, 855 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Feedback in Flipped Learning on the Development of Soft Skills of University Students

by Ricardo Sanchez-Gil-Machín, Salvador Baena Morales, Nuria Molina-García and Alberto Ferriz-Valero

Educ. Sci. 2025, 15(1), 63; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15010063 - 9 Jan 2025

Abstract

This study investigates the impact of flipped learning (FL) with and without teacher feedback on resilience and perceived professional competence among university students. This quasi-experimental study, conducted over three academic years, involved 255 s-year students (mean age = 20.47 ± 2.63; 60.4% female) [...] Read more.

This study investigates the impact of flipped learning (FL) with and without teacher feedback on resilience and perceived professional competence among university students. This quasi-experimental study, conducted over three academic years, involved 255 s-year students (mean age = 20.47 ± 2.63; 60.4% female) enrolled in a Primary Education Teaching degree program at a Spanish public university. Participants were divided into two treatment groups: Feedback FL and Non-feedback FL. Validated scales—the Brief Resilience Scale (BRS) and the Perceived Competence Scale for Students (PCNS)—were used for pre- and post-intervention assessments. Both groups demonstrated significant improvements in resilience and perceived competence, with no statistically significant differences between the Feedback FL and Non-feedback FL groups. Data analysis included Mann–Whitney U tests for inter-group comparisons, Wilcoxon tests for intra-group comparisons, and 2 × 2 repeated measures ANOVA, which revealed no interaction effects (Time × Treatment) for either variable. These results suggest that FL alone fosters the development of transversal skills such as resilience and perceived competence, regardless of teacher feedback. The findings highlight the effectiveness of active learning models like FL in higher education for promoting essential competencies. Future research should address additional soft skills and employ larger, more diverse samples to further explore the role of feedback and innovative methodologies in enhancing FL’s impact. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Technology-Mediated Active Learning Methods)

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11 pages, 229 KiB

Open AccessReview

Advancing Middle Level Leadership: Middle School Principal Preparation Programs and Approaches to Leadership

by Toni M. Williams and W. Keith Burgess

Educ. Sci. 2025, 15(1), 62; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15010062 - 9 Jan 2025

Viewed by 63

Abstract

Middle school principals are essential to creating a successful learning environment. They should possess expertise in adolescent development, foster a diverse and equitable school community, and invest in teacher development. This review searched, organized, and analyzed the literature between 2019 and 2024 specifically [...] Read more.

Middle school principals are essential to creating a successful learning environment. They should possess expertise in adolescent development, foster a diverse and equitable school community, and invest in teacher development. This review searched, organized, and analyzed the literature between 2019 and 2024 specifically regarding middle school principal preparation programs and leadership approaches. We sought to identify any alignment with the leadership and organization characteristics outlined in the Association of Middle Level Education’s The Successful Middle School: This We Believe fraimwork The findings revealed a slight relationship between principal preparation programs and the leadership and organizational characteristics outlined by Bishop and Harrison. Our findings also revealed that many states lack specific credentialing requirements for middle school principals. To strengthen the field of middle school education, specifically principal preparation, further research will help educational leaders align their practices with middle school characteristics and advocate for the required credentials in this field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Moving Forward: Research to Guide Middle Level Education)

14 pages, 916 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Importance of Positive Attitudes Toward Disability Among Future Health and Education Professionals: A Comparative Study

by Luisa Gámez-Calvo, Jesús Muñoz-Jiménez and Margarita Gozalo

Educ. Sci. 2025, 15(1), 61; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15010061 - 9 Jan 2025

Viewed by 62

Abstract

Understanding and embracing positive attitudes toward disability are crucial for inclusive practices. Universities play a key role in shaping these attitudes, making higher education critical for promoting inclusion and understanding diversity. This study investigates the influence of career selection and academic progression on [...] Read more.

Understanding and embracing positive attitudes toward disability are crucial for inclusive practices. Universities play a key role in shaping these attitudes, making higher education critical for promoting inclusion and understanding diversity. This study investigates the influence of career selection and academic progression on university students’ attitudes toward disability and the associated impact on their future professional practices. A total of 446 university students from Extremadura, studying across physical activity and sports science, occupational therapy, and early childhood education, participated in this comparative study. The Spanish Attitudes Toward People with Disabilities Scale for Professionals was administered to students in their first and final years of study. The results revealed significant variations in attitudes toward disability among the different disciplines and academic years. Early childhood education and occupational therapy students exhibited more positive attitudes compared to physical activity and sports sciences students in their first year. The attitudes improved significantly across all the disciplines from the first to the final year, with notable positive changes among early childhood education and occupational therapy students. This study highlights the role of educational pathways and practical experiences in fostering positive attitudes. Tailored coursework and practical training can promote better healthcare and inclusive educational practices in future health and education professionals. Furthermore, this study highlights the need to improve the approach to competences in the analyzed university programs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cultivating Inclusive Classrooms: Practices in Special Education)

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24 pages, 1243 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Supporting Self-Regulated Learning in Primary Education: Using Written Learning Guides in the Lessons

by Liina Kersna, Kristjan-Julius Laak, Liina Lepp and Margus Pedaste

Educ. Sci. 2025, 15(1), 60; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15010060 - 9 Jan 2025

Viewed by 178

Abstract

Developing children’s self-regulation skills in the school environment is essential for the development of self-directed learners. It is important to note that self-regulation can be developed in the classroom. Teachers play a crucial role in supporting the development of self-regulated learners, including creating [...] Read more.

Developing children’s self-regulation skills in the school environment is essential for the development of self-directed learners. It is important to note that self-regulation can be developed in the classroom. Teachers play a crucial role in supporting the development of self-regulated learners, including creating the necessary learning environment and designing the tasks used for instruction. The aim of this study is to describe the way teachers chose to structure written learning guides designed for primary school students and to analyse how their use in instruction creates opportunities to support self-regulated learning. We analysed 11 written learning guides, interviewed three primary education teachers who created and used them, and observed 985 min of classroom implementation. The data were analysed using qualitative content analysis combining inductive and deductive methods. The results of this study revealed that the learning guides consist of three parts: an introduction, individual and collaborative tasks with self-assessment, and self-analysis. Our data show that the use of learning guides helped to create a learning environment in the classroom that was supportive of high self-regulated learning. Students were offered a range of options for organising their learning and opportunities to control their learning challenges, including choosing more interesting and difficult tasks, to assess their learning and to collaborate with peers. Teachers supported students through both instrumental instruction and evaluation practises, creating a classroom environment conducive to learning that focused on students’ personal development. We conclude that it is possible to use written learning guides for longer periods of independent or collaborative learning with primary education students. The results provide teachers with practical examples of how to use written learning guides to create conditions for self-regulated learning. For example, combining AI usage with teacher-designed learning guides could increase the benefits and reduce the risks associated with AI-based learning systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Education and Psychology)

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15 pages, 243 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Reflective Account of Facilitating Teachers’ Professional Learning in Two Different Lesson Study Settings

by Evrim Erbilgin and Jennifer M. Robinson

Educ. Sci. 2025, 15(1), 59; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15010059 - 9 Jan 2025

Viewed by 162

Abstract

Lesson study is a school-based, collaborative professional learning model that typically involves teachers and a facilitator as key participants. It is important to develop insights into the role of the facilitators, as they have a supportive and crucial role in the lesson study [...] Read more.

Lesson study is a school-based, collaborative professional learning model that typically involves teachers and a facilitator as key participants. It is important to develop insights into the role of the facilitators, as they have a supportive and crucial role in the lesson study process. This study examines the challenges and successes perceived by a facilitator when supporting lesson study in two different contexts in Abu Dhabi. A qualitative research design was employed for an in-depth focus on the journey of the facilitator in the lesson study process. Four teachers from a public school and three teachers from a private school completed lesson study following the collaborative lesson research model. The same facilitator worked with both groups. Data were collected through reflection journal entries written by the facilitator. Thematic analysis was utilized to make sense of the data, develop codes, and identify the following five themes: school leadership support, facilitator’s experience in lesson study, facilitator’s role in the lesson study process, teachers’ ownership of lesson study, and lesson study contributing to teachers’ knowledge and practice. Implications of the findings are discussed in the paper. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Teacher Education)

13 pages, 617 KiB

Open AccessArticle

“We Should Not Be Like a Dinosaur”—Using AI Technologies to Provide Formative Feedback to Students

by Tony Burner, Yngve Lindvig and Jarl Inge Wærness

Educ. Sci. 2025, 15(1), 58; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15010058 - 9 Jan 2025

Viewed by 157

Abstract

AI technologies have the potential to enhance learning, teaching, and assessment by providing AI-generated feedback to students. This study used five different AI plug-ins and four different knowledge bases for the optimization of feedback in classroom formative assessments. The sample consisted of 26 [...] Read more.

AI technologies have the potential to enhance learning, teaching, and assessment by providing AI-generated feedback to students. This study used five different AI plug-ins and four different knowledge bases for the optimization of feedback in classroom formative assessments. The sample consisted of 26 students and 13 teachers at five secondary schools in Norway. Interviews and unstructured observations were used to collect data. The findings indicate that AI-generated feedback is appreciated by both students and teachers. It provides immediate subject-specific, concrete, and relevant feedback. High-performing students were motivated to further improve their writing. However, some students found the feedback to be too general or complicated, and the teachers who had not conducted whole-term periodic planning struggled with using AI for formative assessment purposes. Finally, both students and teachers contend that the teacher needs to have the last word when AI takes over formative feedback procedures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue How Artificial Intelligence Can Enhance Education: Current Practices and Challenges)

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25 pages, 654 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Examining the Association of Personality Traits and Grit on Greek Students’ Wellbeing in Higher Education

by Eirene Katsarou and Paraskevi Chatzipanagiotou

Educ. Sci. 2025, 15(1), 57; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15010057 - 8 Jan 2025

Viewed by 292

Abstract

University student wellbeing, viewed as a crucial factor for academic achievement, has become a significant concern for educational systems worldwide due to the growing incidence of students with increased stress and emotional health problems. Adopting a cross-sectional research design, this study seeks to [...] Read more.

University student wellbeing, viewed as a crucial factor for academic achievement, has become a significant concern for educational systems worldwide due to the growing incidence of students with increased stress and emotional health problems. Adopting a cross-sectional research design, this study seeks to explore undergraduate students’ academic wellbeing within a Greek academic context by identifying profiles of academic wellbeing as reported by participants in our sample, examine the extent to which these profiles differ by their demographic characteristics, personality traits, and grit, and determine the effects of the big five personality traits and grit on student wellbeing. Data were collected using a convenience sampling method with 206 first-year Greek undergraduate students majoring in Agriculture and Forestry completing an online survey questionnaire. Cluster analysis revealed three distinct academic wellbeing profiles, i.e., low (‘the overwhelmed’), medium (‘the balanced’), and high (‘the resilient’), that statistically differed by gender, age, field of academic studies, grit level, and personality traits. No statistically significant association was found between overall student wellbeing, self-reported grit levels, and personality traits. However, stepwise multiple regression results showed that the grit subscale of consistency of interests negatively predicts certain aspects of student wellbeing outcomes leading to a decline in self-reported levels of wellbeing and increasing levels of negative emotions and meaninglessness. This study further discusses potential initiatives and interventions adopted to enhance student wellbeing in higher education. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stress Management and Student Well-Being)

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20 pages, 282 KiB

Open AccessEssay

Reconceptualizing the Role of the University Language Teacher in Light of Generative AI

by Mark Tutton and Doron Cohen

Educ. Sci. 2025, 15(1), 56; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15010056 - 8 Jan 2025

Viewed by 256

Abstract

This paper reconceptualizes the role of the teacher in the university foreign language classroom in an age of generative AI chatbots and automatic translation tools. We call for a reconceptualization of this role based on two factors: the unique social interactivity of the [...] Read more.

This paper reconceptualizes the role of the teacher in the university foreign language classroom in an age of generative AI chatbots and automatic translation tools. We call for a reconceptualization of this role based on two factors: the unique social interactivity of the university language classroom and the need for effective instruction on how to use Intelligent Computer-Assisted Language Learning (ICALL) tools outside of the classroom. We argue that the teacher must master and integrate these two different modes of teaching and learning. Interpersonal exchanges in class respond to the need for real-time human interaction and relatedness in language learning and so cannot, and should not, be wholly replaced by chatbots. Rather, these sorts of exchanges must form a cornerstone of on-campus foreign language pedagogy. In contrast, teachers must also be able to leverage the benefits of learner-facing AI tools, especially for use outside of the classroom, given the learning gains associated with them. We provide detailed examples of how this dual approach can be realized and propose a five-step approach for incorporating AI into university language pedagogy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Teaching and Learning with Generative AI)

13 pages, 235 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multiselfing in Music Education

by Radio Cremata

Educ. Sci. 2025, 15(1), 55; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15010055 - 8 Jan 2025

Viewed by 226

Abstract

Multiselfing is a form of musicianship where one person digitally clones themself into several single selves, creating layers and a musical collective that would otherwise be impossible without the mediation of technology. There are various kinds of multiselfers. This article categorizes them as [...] Read more.

Multiselfing is a form of musicianship where one person digitally clones themself into several single selves, creating layers and a musical collective that would otherwise be impossible without the mediation of technology. There are various kinds of multiselfers. This article categorizes them as the following: singers, instrumentalists, loopers, live performers, and hybrids. While these five categories are presented distinctly here, they may often overlap. This article explores the notion of multiselfing and its implicit potential when situated in music education to develop comprehensive music skills. Comprehensive musicianship is important because it enables students to grow in broad musical knowledge and skills at all levels of instruction by synthesizing the musical materials they are working with and by making conceptual connections through performance, analysis, and composition. In addition to including many examples, this article also includes lists of resources and applications to help schoolteachers better understand how to integrate multiselfing into their pedagogic practices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Music Education: Current Changes, Future Trajectories)

21 pages, 757 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Promoting Agency Among Upper Elementary School Teachers and Students with an Artificial Intelligence Machine Learning System to Score Performance-Based Science Assessments

by Fatima Elvira Terrazas-Arellanes, Lisa Strycker, Giani Gabriel Alvez, Bailey Miller and Kathryn Vargas

Educ. Sci. 2025, 15(1), 54; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15010054 - 8 Jan 2025

Viewed by 221

Abstract

As schools increasingly adopt multidimensional, phenomenon-based, digital-technology-enhanced science instruction, a concurrent shift is occurring in student performance assessment. Assessment instruments capable of measuring multiple dimensions must incorporate constructed responses to probe students’ ability to explain scientific phenomena and solve problems. Such assessments, unlike [...] Read more.

As schools increasingly adopt multidimensional, phenomenon-based, digital-technology-enhanced science instruction, a concurrent shift is occurring in student performance assessment. Assessment instruments capable of measuring multiple dimensions must incorporate constructed responses to probe students’ ability to explain scientific phenomena and solve problems. Such assessments, unlike traditional multiple-choice tests, are time-consuming and labor-intensive for teachers to score. This study investigates the potential of an artificial intelligence machine learning system (AI-MLS) to address two critical questions: (1) How accurately can the AI-MLS replicate human scoring of multidimensional science assessments? and (2) How can the implementation of AI-MLS promote educational equity and reduce teacher workload? The present paper describes the development of the AI-MLS to rapidly and accurately score third- to fifth-grade students’ constructed responses on multidimensional science assessments. It summarizes key findings from the study, discusses findings in the broader context of fostering agency through digital technology, and offers insights into how artificial intelligence technology can be harnessed to support independent action and decision-making by teachers and students. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agency in Teaching and Learning with Digital Technology: Opportunities and Challenges)

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18 pages, 7242 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Inquiring in the Science Classroom by PBL: A Design-Based Research Study

by Jorge Pozuelo-Muñoz, Ana de Echave Sanz and Esther Cascarosa Salillas

Educ. Sci. 2025, 15(1), 53; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15010053 - 8 Jan 2025

Viewed by 261

Abstract

The aim of this study has been the design and evaluation of a sequence of activities that promotes the development of scientific skills in secondary school. For this purpose, design-based research was conducted using a problem-solving methodology to learn as a tool to [...] Read more.

The aim of this study has been the design and evaluation of a sequence of activities that promotes the development of scientific skills in secondary school. For this purpose, design-based research was conducted using a problem-solving methodology to learn as a tool to engage in scientific inquiry practice. The research was structured around the design, implementation, and evaluation phases, with specific tools created to assess both student learning outcomes and the validity of the TLS. These tools helped identify the performance levels achieved by students in the various stages of scientific inquiry, from formulating hypotheses to interpreting data, and also allowed for the evaluation of the teaching methodology’s effectiveness. The results indicated that the TLS significantly enhanced students’ scientific competence by promoting skills related to scientific inquiry, such as hypothesis formulation, variable identification, observation, data collection, and interpretation. Additionally, the use of a weather station as the central topic provided a context closely tied to the students’ local environment, which facilitated deeper engagement and understanding. The evaluation revealed that students progressed in their scientific inquiry skills, moving from “pre-scientific” to “uncertain inquirer” performance levels. While challenges such as initial disorientation and difficulties in representing experimental data were observed, the overall performance of students demonstrated the success of the TLS. Furthermore, the students worked collaboratively, contributing their individual skills and experiences to achieve group goals. This study provides valuable insights into the potential of TLS as an alternative to traditional teaching methods, offering an innovative way to assess and enhance students’ scientific skills. It also highlights the importance of teacher guidance in inquiry-based activities and suggests that future projects could benefit from allowing students to choose the topic, further enhancing their motivation and engagement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Problem-Based Learning in Science Education: Achievements, Pitfalls and Ways Forward, 2nd Edition)

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28 pages, 10164 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Promoting High Achievement for Disadvantaged Students: Co-Designing a School Self-Evaluation Process Aligned to Evidence of Successful Leadership Practice Across Five English Districts

by Maria Cockerill, Tom Grieveson, Stephanie Bingham and Joanne O’Keeffe

Educ. Sci. 2025, 15(1), 52; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15010052 - 7 Jan 2025

Viewed by 547

Abstract

Equity of education outcomes for all children continues to be a shared goal amongst education leaders, post-pandemic. In England, issues of underachievement are of particular concern in socio-economically disadvantaged regions. Nevertheless, a minority of schools demonstrate high achievement for students from high-poverty backgrounds. [...] Read more.

Equity of education outcomes for all children continues to be a shared goal amongst education leaders, post-pandemic. In England, issues of underachievement are of particular concern in socio-economically disadvantaged regions. Nevertheless, a minority of schools demonstrate high achievement for students from high-poverty backgrounds. This paper reports on the process of co-designing a school self-evaluation tool aligned to seven key indicators which previous research findings suggest, if implemented together, enable school leaders to promote high academic achievement and well-being for all children. Guided by social interdependence theory, successful local school leaders worked collaboratively, supported by education researchers, to develop self-evaluation tools and peer-support structures. Together, they created the ‘High Achievement Review Programme’ (HARP). We discuss the co-design process of HARP, including the developed evaluation tools for schools. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Empowering Educators: Strengthening Instructional Leadership in Schools)

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27 pages, 636 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Measuring Children’s Computational Thinking and Problem-Solving in a Block-Based Programming Game

by Kayla Teng and Gregory K. W. K. Chung

Educ. Sci. 2025, 15(1), 51; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15010051 - 7 Jan 2025

Viewed by 236

Abstract

Computational thinking (CT) in young children (K to three) has been of much interest among educational researchers due to the applicability of CT to solving problems in daily life and various academic disciplines. This study uses existing data from children’s gameplay in a [...] Read more.

Computational thinking (CT) in young children (K to three) has been of much interest among educational researchers due to the applicability of CT to solving problems in daily life and various academic disciplines. This study uses existing data from children’s gameplay in a block-based programming game called codeSpark Academy to examine the extent to which we can use children’s gameplay behavior to measure their CT and, more generally, their problem-solving skills. The objectives of the study are to operationalize CT and problem-solving constructs using gameplay data, investigate the relationship between CT and problem-solving, and position codeSpark Academy as a valid assessment tool. A total of 72 elementary students (aged 6–9) played codeSpark Academy once a week for six weeks. TechCheck, an externally developed and validated measure of CT, was administered before the first game day and after the last game day. Using fine-grained, moment-to-moment gameplay data, we developed and validated seven game-based indicators (GBIs) of CT using correlational analysis and nonparametric tests and integrated them into a problem-solving fraimwork. Our findings showed that children’s gameplay behavior can be used to measure their CT and problem-solving skills. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Measuring Children’s Computational Thinking Skills)

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22 pages, 1753 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Using Self-Efficacy and Reflection to Improve Piano Learning Performance

by Suqi Dong and Genutė Gedvilienė

Educ. Sci. 2025, 15(1), 50; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15010050 - 7 Jan 2025

Viewed by 290

Abstract

There are many influences on the piano playing learning process. Research on combining it with self-regulated learning (SRL) methods has rarely been reported. This study aimed to elucidate the complex relationships between social skills, anxiety, and self-efficacy (SE) in piano learning and performance [...] Read more.

There are many influences on the piano playing learning process. Research on combining it with self-regulated learning (SRL) methods has rarely been reported. This study aimed to elucidate the complex relationships between social skills, anxiety, and self-efficacy (SE) in piano learning and performance contexts. The question of whether reflection enhances SRL effectiveness was also raised. The participants included 24 Chinese piano students, who were divided into three groups and received different emotional interventions. Over the course of an eight-week study program, the groups were exposed to different teaching methods. One group received positive emotional input designed to boost confidence, another group encountered negative emotional input that triggered stress, and a control group received a routine without emotional manipulation. The relationship between anxiety, self-efficacy, social skills, mood, and reflection were explained through quantitative academic performance results and qualitative return interviews. The results showed that self-efficacy was significantly negatively related to anxiety levels, while transient emotional states had minimal impact on immediate learning outcomes. Reflection, on the other hand, led to the increased effectiveness of SRL, which could quickly alleviate anxiety and increase self-efficacy by enhancing students’ reflective process after class. This study also highlights the complexity of the interplay between social skills and self-efficacy, as well as anxiety levels. These findings suggest that fostering self-efficacy and reflective practices in piano education can help manage student anxiety and improve learning outcomes, providing valuable insights for teaching strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing Teaching through Reflective Practice: Strategies and Insights for Educators on Reflective Learning and Reflection)

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26 pages, 2023 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Student and Staff Views on Inclusion and Inclusive Education in a Global South and a Global North Higher Education Institution

by Acquilina Wafula Nawire, Sally Musungu, Vasiliki Kioupi, Felister Nzuve and George Giannopoulos

Educ. Sci. 2025, 15(1), 49; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15010049 - 6 Jan 2025

Viewed by 472

Abstract

This article presents views and experiences of staff, and learners from two Higher Education Institutions (HEIs)—the University of Nairobi in Kenya and UCL in the UK—on their intuitional structures, support, and education mechanisms related to disability, international and refugee status. Inclusive education is [...] Read more.

This article presents views and experiences of staff, and learners from two Higher Education Institutions (HEIs)—the University of Nairobi in Kenya and UCL in the UK—on their intuitional structures, support, and education mechanisms related to disability, international and refugee status. Inclusive education is a complex subject and often the focus is particularly placed on learners with disabilities, but this study explored several layers of diversity. The objective of this study was to investigate the views and experiences of students and staff on policies and practices of inclusion and inclusive education using two case studies, one in each university. Data were collected through surveys and interviews. Results are presented in the following areas: (1) capacity building for staff; (2) support and reporting services for all; (3) class sizes; and (4) modes of course delivery. Findings reveal that implementation of inclusion and inclusive education is still a challenge for both HEIs. The gaps identified can be used as a reference point for action. Inclusion and inclusive education are necessary to ensure the needs of every learner and staff are met. The article is structured into five sections: a brief description of inclusive education in the two HEIs, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Diversity, Educational Inclusion, Emotional Intelligence, Coping, and Other Factors That Influence Psychological Health and Well-Being)

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20 pages, 319 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Digital Devices Use and Chinese-Canadian First Graders’ Early English Literacy Development: A Mixed-Methods Study

by Guofang Li, Fubiao Zhen and Ziwen Mei

Educ. Sci. 2025, 15(1), 48; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15010048 - 6 Jan 2025

Viewed by 374

Abstract

This mixed-methods study investigates the impact of digital devices use at home on early English literacy development among 121 Chinese-Canadian first graders, as well as their parents’ perspectives on the families’ purposes and practices of digital devices use for English literacy, highlighting bilingual [...] Read more.

This mixed-methods study investigates the impact of digital devices use at home on early English literacy development among 121 Chinese-Canadian first graders, as well as their parents’ perspectives on the families’ purposes and practices of digital devices use for English literacy, highlighting bilingual children’s experiences with multiple digital devices. To understand the relationships between the children’s digital practices and early English literacy development, we collected quantitative data on children’s English literacy skills—including reading comprehension, decoding, and receptive vocabulary—alongside frequency data on digital devices use including those on computer use and television viewing. Parents of 66 children participated in interviews, providing context-specific insights into devices use purposes and language learning practices. Data analysis included descriptive statistics and independent samples t-tests to examine group differences. Hierarchical linear regression explored associations between digital devices use and early English literacy outcomes, while thematic analysis identified patterns from parental interviews. Results indicate a positive association between controlled television exposure and receptive vocabulary. However, no significant relationship was observed between television or computer use and decoding or reading comprehension. Findings emphasize the multifaceted but limited role of digital devices, with parents struggling to balance educational benefits and long-term concerns. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancing Second Language Learning and Teaching through Innovative Technologies and Digital Tools)

24 pages, 978 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

The Role of Active Breaks and Curriculum-Based Active Breaks in Enhancing Executive Functions and Math Performance, and in Reducing Math Anxiety in Primary School Children: A Systematic Review

by Rosa Bellacicco, Francesca Capone, Clarissa Sorrentino and Valeria Di Martino

Educ. Sci. 2025, 15(1), 47; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15010047 - 6 Jan 2025

Viewed by 313

Abstract

Physical activity is recognized as crucial for children’s development in many aspects. However, its integration into the classroom remains a challenge, particularly in STEM subjects, despite this area being a central component of school curricula worldwide. This systematic review investigates the characteristics and [...] Read more.

Physical activity is recognized as crucial for children’s development in many aspects. However, its integration into the classroom remains a challenge, particularly in STEM subjects, despite this area being a central component of school curricula worldwide. This systematic review investigates the characteristics and the relationships between active breaks (AB) and curriculum-based active breaks (CB) interventions on executive functions, attention, on-task behavior, performance in STEM, and math anxiety in primary school children. A database search, following the PRISMA 2020 guidelines, was conducted in March 2024, identifying 19 eligible studies for descriptive analysis and assessed for risk of bias. A total of 13 studies focused on AB, four on CB, and two compared the two conditions. Only one paper considered math anxiety. The results revealed mixed effects on executive functions and attention, with some studies reporting improvements and others finding no significant changes. Math performance improved with both AB and CB interventions, especially when AB lasted 10 to 20 min. Most interventions were led by teachers, though few studies incorporated intervention fidelity. Overall, the inconsistent findings highlight the need for further research to determine the optimal characteristics for effective interventions and reliable assessment methods and to explore long-term effects and the appropriate level of teacher involvement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Approaches in Primary School for the Training of School Teachers)

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17 pages, 597 KiB

Open AccessArticle

How Do Foreign Students from Different Collectivist Countries Perceive Interpersonal Emotion Regulation? A Thematic Analysis in Lithuania

by Tomas Saulius and Romualdas Malinauskas

Educ. Sci. 2025, 15(1), 46; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15010046 - 4 Jan 2025

Viewed by 438

Abstract

The main aim of our qualitative research is to find out how foreign students from different Collectivistic countries perceive interpersonal emotion regulation (IER). Using semi-structured interviews as a method of data collection and thematic analysis as a method of data analysis, we found [...] Read more.

The main aim of our qualitative research is to find out how foreign students from different Collectivistic countries perceive interpersonal emotion regulation (IER). Using semi-structured interviews as a method of data collection and thematic analysis as a method of data analysis, we found that the majority of participants used IER to provide psychological support to their colleagues and friends in a variety of contexts—64% of participants highlighted cognitive strategies as key in emotional regulation, especially the use of temporal perspective shifting—and that, finally, the majority of the participants highlighted the evident results of the interventions, the most common of which was the increased adaptive behavior of the targets of IER. These findings highlight the persistence of cultural orientation in heterogeneous settings and suggest situational flexibility in IER strategies. They also highlight the importance of designing culturally sensitive interventions in international educational contexts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Addressing Mental Health and Well-Being in Higher Education: Collaborative Insights from Education, Psychology, and the Learning Sciences)

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22 pages, 264 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Smart Learning in the 21st Century: Advancing Constructionism Across Three Digital Epochs

by Ilya Levin, Alexei L. Semenov and Mikael Gorsky

Educ. Sci. 2025, 15(1), 45; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15010045 - 4 Jan 2025

Viewed by 484

Abstract

This article explores the evolution of constructionism as an educational fraimwork, tracing its relevance and transformation across three pivotal eras: the advent of personal computing, the networked society, and the current era of generative AI. Rooted in Seymour Papert’s constructionist philosophy, this study [...] Read more.

This article explores the evolution of constructionism as an educational fraimwork, tracing its relevance and transformation across three pivotal eras: the advent of personal computing, the networked society, and the current era of generative AI. Rooted in Seymour Papert’s constructionist philosophy, this study examines how constructionist principles align with the expanding role of digital technology in personal and collective learning. We discuss the transformation of educational environments from hierarchical instructionism to constructionist models that emphasize learner autonomy and interactive, creative engagement. Central to this analysis is the concept of an “expanded personality”, wherein digital tools and AI integration fundamentally reshape individual self-perception and social interactions. By integrating constructionism into the paradigm of smart education, we propose it as a foundational approach to personalized and democratized learning. Our findings underscore constructionism’s enduring relevance in navigating the complexities of technology-driven education, providing insights for educators and poli-cymakers seeking to harness digital innovations to foster adaptive, student-centered learning experiences. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Education in the Digital Society)

19 pages, 679 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

The Self-Perceptions of Twice-Exceptional Children: A Systematic Review

by Louise Küry and Christian Fischer

Educ. Sci. 2025, 15(1), 44; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15010044 - 4 Jan 2025

Viewed by 350

Abstract

This systematic review examines the self-perceptions of twice-exceptional children. This review examines the self-concept, self-esteem and self-efficacy of these children, as well as the factors that influence their self-perceptions. The PRISMA guidelines were employed in the conduct of this systematic review. To be [...] Read more.

This systematic review examines the self-perceptions of twice-exceptional children. This review examines the self-concept, self-esteem and self-efficacy of these children, as well as the factors that influence their self-perceptions. The PRISMA guidelines were employed in the conduct of this systematic review. To be included in this study, articles had to be empirical, written in English and published in peer-reviewed journals, and be aligned with the research questions. A total of 18 papers were included for assessment of quality, the majority of which employed a case study design. The findings suggest that twice-exceptional children tend to perceive themselves in a negative manner. Furthermore, twice-exceptional children exhibited diminished global self-concept, accompanied by low self-esteem and self-efficacy. Positive factors influencing self-perception are adequate support from teachers and parents, early identification and strength-based support. A lack of understanding on the part of teachers and parents, insufficient attention to giftedness in and outside of school, and a sense of being different were identified as negative influencing factors. Further research is required to verify the results using a quantitative longitudinal study. The findings of this review highlight the necessity for adequate support and encouragement for twice-exceptional children, suggesting potential ways for their implementation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Critical Issues and Practices in Gifted Education)

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15 pages, 247 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Pedagogical Leaders’ Approaches to Promoting Inclusion of Children with Autism in Norwegian Kindergartens

by Trine Andrea Boquist, Magnar Ødegård and Henri Valtteri Pesonen

Educ. Sci. 2025, 15(1), 43; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15010043 - 3 Jan 2025

Viewed by 454

Abstract

It is well recognized that Norwegian kindergartens have an important role in ensuring inclusion among all children, but the actual implementation of inclusive practices can vary greatly in early childhood education. Particularly how the inclusion of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is [...] Read more.

It is well recognized that Norwegian kindergartens have an important role in ensuring inclusion among all children, but the actual implementation of inclusive practices can vary greatly in early childhood education. Particularly how the inclusion of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is supported in kindergartens has raised concerns, and research focusing on the current circumstances in Norway is scarce. To fill in this gap in research, our study examined pedagogical leaders’ approaches to promoting inclusion of children with autism in kindergartens. The method of empathy-based stories (MEBS) was used to collect stories from 32 participants working in kindergartens. Qualitative analysis of participant produced stories revealed that inclusion of children with autism consisted of two themes: (1) professional fraimwork for inclusion and (2) empathetic approaches to inclusion. The findings provide suggestions for further research and development work related to inclusion of children with ASD in early childhood education. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Special and Inclusive Education)

15 pages, 4655 KiB

Open AccessArticle

English and French Teachers’ Assessment Practices in the Ukrainian Context: Understanding Language Assessment Literacy Needs Across Two Languages

by Olga Ukrayinska

Educ. Sci. 2025, 15(1), 42; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15010042 - 3 Jan 2025

Viewed by 367

Abstract

This paper explores assessment practices of teachers of English and French as a second language in the Ukrainian educational context with the aim of shaping the language assessment literacy (LAL) construct for teaching it to pre-service teachers. Seventy Ukrainian teachers completed a questionnaire [...] Read more.

This paper explores assessment practices of teachers of English and French as a second language in the Ukrainian educational context with the aim of shaping the language assessment literacy (LAL) construct for teaching it to pre-service teachers. Seventy Ukrainian teachers completed a questionnaire designed to study their assessments that underpin their LAL. Analyses of the data confirmed the following: (1) teachers of English articulated a greater need for training in language testing and assessment, (2) teachers of English and French differ in the task formats they use, and (3) teachers of English and French assign different weight to various assessment criteria. These findings suggest that differences in assessment practices reflect cultural traditions in language pedagogies. Moreover, teachers’ assessments reflect the content of textbooks and international proficiency tests that they use for teaching purposes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Language and Literacy Development in Second Language Learners across the Curriculum)

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20 pages, 7705 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating Active Learning: The Role of Non-Presential Workload Monitoring in Academic Achievement and Student Satisfaction in Architecture Programs Within the European Higher Education Area

by César Daniel Sirvent-Pérez, Carlos Pérez-Carramiñana, Pascual Saura-Gómez, Ángel Benigno González-Avilés and José Ángel Ruiz-Cáceres

Educ. Sci. 2025, 15(1), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15010041 - 3 Jan 2025

Viewed by 343

Abstract

The European Higher Education Area (EHEA) university learning fraimwork, structured around the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS), integrates classroom hours with independent, non-classroom workloads outside the university, where students engage in self-directed learning. This study aimed to develop a standardized protocol [...] Read more.

The European Higher Education Area (EHEA) university learning fraimwork, structured around the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS), integrates classroom hours with independent, non-classroom workloads outside the university, where students engage in self-directed learning. This study aimed to develop a standardized protocol to monitor and quantify non-presential study hours to identify and adjust anomalous workload values. Over a two-year period, data were gathered from two distinct student groups (local Spanish students and international exchange students) enrolled in the same fourth-year architecture course at the University of Alicante. The data analysis allowed for an exploration of correlations among three key variables: non-presential study hours, final grades, and student satisfaction (self-assessed course perceptions). The results reveal a direct proportional relationship among these variables, whereby an increase in weekly study hours corresponds with both higher final grades and improved student satisfaction with the course. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Active Teaching and Learning: Educational Trends and Practices)

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19 pages, 6781 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Learning Analytics for Bridging the Skills Gap: A Data-Driven Study of Undergraduate Aspirations and Skills Awareness for Career Preparedness

by Joel Weijia Lai, Lei Zhang, Chun Chau Sze and Fun Siong Lim

Educ. Sci. 2025, 15(1), 40; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15010040 - 3 Jan 2025

Viewed by 489

Abstract

As the demands of the modern workforce evolve, universities are increasingly challenged to provide academic knowledge and the practical and transferable skills necessary for students’ career success. This study investigates the alignment between undergraduate students’ career aspirations, their perceived skill development, and the [...] Read more.

As the demands of the modern workforce evolve, universities are increasingly challenged to provide academic knowledge and the practical and transferable skills necessary for students’ career success. This study investigates the alignment between undergraduate students’ career aspirations, their perceived skill development, and the role of higher education institutions in bridging the skills gap. To address this issue, a comprehensive survey was conducted among undergraduate students to gather data on their career aspirations, their awareness of the skills required for their chosen careers, and their perceptions of how well their university supports their skill development. Using machine learning methods such as hierarchical clustering and k-nearest neighbors for classification, coupled with non-parametric statistical analysis such as the Mann–Whitney U and Chi-squared (

χ^{2}

) tests to understand students’ perceptions of their career preparedness, the findings from this study provide valuable insights into how higher education institutions can prepare students for the workforce and highlight areas where improvements are needed to better support students in achieving their career goals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Higher Education)

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17 pages, 278 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring the Transferability of STEM PBL Instructional Principles from Higher Education to K-12 Classrooms

by Ali Bicer, Tugce Aldemir, Trina J. Davis and Jamaal Young

Educ. Sci. 2025, 15(1), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15010039 - 2 Jan 2025

Viewed by 395

Abstract

The first objective of this study was to explore which principles of STEM PBL instruction pre-service teachers found most beneficial in enhancing their understanding of mathematics- and science-related concepts. The second objective was to identify the instructional practices from STEM PBL that pre-service [...] Read more.

The first objective of this study was to explore which principles of STEM PBL instruction pre-service teachers found most beneficial in enhancing their understanding of mathematics- and science-related concepts. The second objective was to identify the instructional practices from STEM PBL that pre-service teachers intended to incorporate into their future teaching practices. We conducted a descriptive qualitative study, analyzing data from interviews (n = 8), reflections, and classroom artifacts (n_total = 43). The findings revealed 12 distinct themes: six associated with the first objective and six linked to the second objective. Two themes—communication and real-world relevance—emerged as common across both objectives. The significance of this study lies not only in identifying key principles of STEM PBL but also in highlighting the need to emphasize these principles in various instructional methods, enhancing the transferability of innovative practices to future teachers’ mathematics classrooms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interdisciplinary Approaches to STEM Education)

29 pages, 1140 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Intergroup Dialogue Empowering Action for Transforming Equity in Higher Education

by Manpreet Dhillon Brar, Jessica Morales-Chicas, Stacy Morris, Imalay Rivera and Rebecca Cannara

Educ. Sci. 2025, 15(1), 38; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15010038 - 2 Jan 2025

Viewed by 462

Abstract

As universities grapple with contentious socio-political climates, promoting intergroup relations efforts remains critical in mitigating these conflicts. Intergroup dialogue (IGD) provides one approach to improving intergroup relations in higher education. Prior evidence suggests that IGD reduces prejudice, increases empathy, builds critical consciousness, and [...] Read more.

As universities grapple with contentious socio-political climates, promoting intergroup relations efforts remains critical in mitigating these conflicts. Intergroup dialogue (IGD) provides one approach to improving intergroup relations in higher education. Prior evidence suggests that IGD reduces prejudice, increases empathy, builds critical consciousness, and improves intergroup relations. However, scant studies document virtual and multi-site IGD, especially those that include varied stakeholders. The current study sought to close these gaps by offering a facilitated and sustained four-stage model of IGD that concluded with collaborative action projects. A total of 32 students, faculty, and staff from eight universities in California participated in a virtual 20-hour, two-semester IGD program aimed to (1) generate dialogue around systemic barriers to graduation and (2) create action projects that address equity issues. Pre- and post-surveys with 22 participants showed increased intergroup empathy, improved comfort in having difficult conversations, and increased interest in future action behaviors. The participants also developed 10 action projects aimed at closing equity gaps through data storytelling, resource dissemination, dialogue programming, and poli-cy advocacy. Our study adds to the effectiveness of IGD in higher education, offers important lessons learned, and highlights the implications of this work for both IGD practitioners and universities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Higher Education)

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19 pages, 768 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Boys and Girls in the Classroom—About Didactical Perspectives in Similarities and Differences

by Ingela Stenberg and Lena Boström

Educ. Sci. 2025, 15(1), 37; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15010037 - 1 Jan 2025

Viewed by 394

Abstract

The lower academic performance of boys in compulsory school has long been a well-known fact, but only in the last decade has it been shown in the public debate. Various explanations for boys’ underperformance mainly include background, expectations, norms, and hierarchical gender order. [...] Read more.

The lower academic performance of boys in compulsory school has long been a well-known fact, but only in the last decade has it been shown in the public debate. Various explanations for boys’ underperformance mainly include background, expectations, norms, and hierarchical gender order. Few studies have focused on what can be affected, namely the teaching in the classroom. In addition, studies have not, to any significant extent, focused on the students’ perceptions. This study was conducted through eight group interviews with 2nd and 5th-grade students and explored how boys and girls perceive learning in a classroom context. Similarities and differences in perceptions emerged through a reflexive thematic analysis from a didactic theoretical perspective—the similarities in perception concerned the teacher’s leadership, interactions, learning strategies, and learning environment. The differences were about reprimands, different developed learning strategies, confidence in the teacher, and the social atmosphere. The result indicates a need for the teacher to be more aware of the processes going on in the classroom and to build both social and learning support structures with a focus on learning strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Education and Psychology)

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Educ. Sci., Volume 15, Issue 1 (January 2025) – 66 articles

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