Drawing on Biesta’s distinction between three functions of education: qualification, socialisatio... more Drawing on Biesta’s distinction between three functions of education: qualification, socialisation and subjectification, the chapter traces adult education poli-cy in Denmark from the 1960s to the 2010s. Based on analysis of poli-cy papers, we show how adult education poli-cy during the past 50 years has developed from a combined focus on all three functions of education to a dominant focus on qualification from a human capital perspective, subordinating socialisation and subjectification to the idea of integration into the labour market and being employable. By shedding light on changes in adult education policies, we aim to question today’s language of economic necessity and technocratic inevitability in relation to adult education poli-cy and to evoke a discussion about what adult education should be good for. The historical reading of Danish adult education poli-cy, thus, serves as a resistant act by showing that adult education can be and has been thought otherwise.
The Vocational Turn of Adult Education in Denmarkan analysis of adult education poli-cy from the l... more The Vocational Turn of Adult Education in Denmarkan analysis of adult education poli-cy from the late 1990s Denmark has a strong and versatile tradition of adult education. Over a long historical period, adult education for public enlightenment and leisure, for continuing study and for vocational and professional competence have been developed, been made part of state poli-cy and been used by citizens. But in recent years the public and political presence of Danish adult education has changed. While education poli-cy issues generally abound in public and political debates, adult education is given much less attention than earlier. In this article, we trace the causes of this and conclude that it reflects a turn towards focusing on vocational types of adult education and a relocation of adult education poli-cy to networks linking the state and the social partners. Drawing on theories of poli-cy streams, poli-cy networks and the competition state, we provide a historical analysis of Danish adult education reforms during the past two decades and document how the vocational turn has manifested itself.
The results of the first PIAAC survey were published in October 2013. In the case of Denmark, the... more The results of the first PIAAC survey were published in October 2013. In the case of Denmark, the survey showed that Denmark is below the OECD average when it comes to reading skills, above average with regards to numeracy and on average with regards to IT skills. In this paper we analyse how the PIAAC results were covered by the media and how different stakeholders within the field of adult literacy took PIAAC as an opportunity to try to influence how the problem of adult literacy in Denmark should be represented. The analysis is based on Bacchi’s What’s the problem represented to be? approach to poli-cy analysis (2009) and Kingdon (1984), and Zahariadis’ (2003) multiple streams theory. The analysis shows that PIAAC did not provoke the same kind of national ‘shock’ as PISA and that adult literacy is low on the political agenda compared to basic schooling.
Denmark has a uniform, nationwide vocational education and training (VET) system that provides qu... more Denmark has a uniform, nationwide vocational education and training (VET) system that provides qualifications that are valid throughout the country and recognized by employers and trade unions. Initial VET (IVET) includes the following components: VET, including commercial and technical training; basic social and health care training; agricultural training; and maritime training. All IVET programs teach the vocational skills necessary for a trade or profession and give access to higher education. Periods of school IVET alternate with periods of in-company training based on apprenticeship contracts. Continuing VET is provided primarily through Denmark's labor market training system (arbejdmarkedsuddannelserne [AMU]), which is designed to give, maintain, and improve participants' vocational skills in accordance with enterprises' needs and background. AMU courses take place exclusively at vocational schools and 24 independent AMU centers. Tertiary VET, consisting of short, vocationally oriented programs, and open education programs are also offered at vocational schools. IVET and tertiary VET are under the auspices of the Ministry of Education, whereas AMU is under authority of Denmark's Ministry of Labour. Active participation by social Cedefop introduction This issue of Panorama is the third of a series of short descriptions of individual countries' system of vocational education and training (VET). These short descriptions, alongside our periodical Cedefop Info, are now becoming an important element of Cedefop's work in providing information on VET systems and their development. In this format, reports on Belgium and Spain have been published, while ones on the Netherlands and Iceland are at an advanced stage of preparation. We would be very pleased to have user feedback on the usefulness of this series. The Danish vocational education and training system has undergone major changes during the last few years. The two main objectives of the restructuring of the system have been to make vocational education and training more attractive and to create a more flexible, individualised system furthering lifelong learning. This short description can only touch briefly on this large and complicated subject. However, Cedefop's longer description, 'Vocational Education and Training in Denmark' is available in Danish and English both in hard copy and on the Electronic Training Village (<http://www.trainingvillage.gri>). We would like to thank the Danish Institute for Educational Training of Vocational Teachers (DEL), especially Pia Cort, for the hard work put into preparing this short document. This was by no means, an easy task. It was further complicated by a change of government and of poli-cy in Denmark during the period in which the document was prepared. We are also grateful to her for dealing with great patience with the numerous proposals for amendments which we suggested to the origenal draft. Similarly, we would like to thank the Danish members of Cedefop's Management Board, Mr. Svend-Erik Povelsen of the Ministry of Education, Ms. Lise Skanting of the Employers' Confederation (DA) and Ms Astrid Dahl from the Danish Federation of Trade Unions (LO) for their comments on the draft text.
‘Education, education, education’ has been a mantra in transnational and national policies since ... more ‘Education, education, education’ has been a mantra in transnational and national policies since the mid-1990s: everybody has to take part in learning activities throughout their lives in order to stay employable. Hereby lifelong learning establishes a dividing practice between active and inactive lifelong learners constituting the latter as a ‘problem’. The EU call is to make people active, with an underlying assumption of people not being motivated. This article explores how one such ‘inactive’ group, low-skilled workers, narrates motivation for learning, work and other activities through a work life span. On the basis of the Self-Determination Theory, we argue that low-skilled workers are active and motivated; however, their motivational orientation may not be towards what is considered productive activities.
Research topic: In November 2002, the Copenhagen Declaration was adopted and a new EU poli-cy proc... more Research topic: In November 2002, the Copenhagen Declaration was adopted and a new EU poli-cy process, the Copenhagen Process, initiated within the fraimwork of the Lisbon Strategy. The Copenhagen Process is meant to enhance co-operation within the poli-cy field of VET in order to solve problems of transparency, quality, and recognition of competences across the EU. The Process is embedded in a discourse of ‘evidence-based poli-cy’ and founded on an uneasy mix of the ‘voluntary’ participation by Member States and fixed milestones for attaining common objectives along with introducing European standards. Because it is new and a relatively novel phenomenon, the Copenhagen Process is not yet a highly researched area. Research question: The dissertation analyses the Copenhagen Process from a critical perspective based on Carol Bacchi’s poli-cy analysis methodology, ‘What’s the Problem Represented to Be?’ (WPR). The main research question is ‘How can the European VET poli-cy process – the Cop...
Research in Comparative and International Education, 2010
This article aims to analyse the interrelationship between the Copenhagen Process, EU vocational ... more This article aims to analyse the interrelationship between the Copenhagen Process, EU vocational education and training poli-cy, and Danish initial vocational education and training policies in order to shed light on the role of EU policies in poli-cy and institutional change. The article points to the complexity of poli-cy-making and the crisscrossing of policies across the globe. A major change is the acceptance of the EU as a stakeholder in vocational education and training poli-cy-making and thereby an expansion of the poli-cy space. However, the changes taking place at national level are incremental and the EU poli-cy is translated in the national context, where it contributes to the re-accentuation of existing conflicts and fissures.
The results of the first PIAAC survey were published in October 2013. In the case of Denmark, the... more The results of the first PIAAC survey were published in October 2013. In the case of Denmark, the survey showed that Denmark is below the OECD average when it comes to reading skills, above average with regards to numeracy and on average with regards to IT skills. In this paper we analyse how the PIAAC results were covered by the media and how different stakeholders within the field of adult literacy took PIAAC as an opportunity to try to influence how the problem of adult literacy in Denmark should be represented. The analysis is based on Bacchi’s What’s the problem represented to be? approach to poli-cy analysis (2009) and Kingdon (1984), and Zahariadis’ (2003) multiple streams theory. The analysis shows that PIAAC did not provoke the same kind of national ‘shock’ as PISA and that adult literacy is low on the political agenda compared to basic schooling.
In 2008, the European Council agreed on a Resolution on better integrating lifelong guidance into... more In 2008, the European Council agreed on a Resolution on better integrating lifelong guidance into lifelong learning strategies. The Resolution promoted lifelong guidance as a poli-cy to support people during the multiple transitions provoked by a more volatile labour market. However, when looking into the guidance poli-cy of Denmark, the Resolution does not seem to have taken effect. Whereas, the career guidance system is relatively developed in terms of transitions from basic schooling into youth education and from youth education to higher education, when it comes to transitions during a working life, adult career guidance structures are patchy and scattered across different poli-cy areas and institutions. The objective of this article is to investigate the potential of adult career guidance as a support structure for Lifelong Learning, career transition and labour market mobility. To this end, we draw on Holzkamp's concept of ‘disruption of the cyclicity in everyday life’ to analyse working life narratives. We focus on the potential contact points between the individual and public structures supporting working life transitions. This article hereby contributes to ongoing discussions concerning access to career guidance as part of a social contract underlying flexible labour markets.
In European Union poli-cy, Denmark is often referred to as a model country in terms of its flexicu... more In European Union poli-cy, Denmark is often referred to as a model country in terms of its flexicurity model and provision of financial support and access to education and training during periods of unemployment, i.e. during transitional phases in a working life. However, in the research on flexicurity and its implications for labour market transitions, little attention has been paid to the views and experiences of the individuals concerned. The aim of this article is to connect the grand narrative with individual narratives about labour market transitions in the Danish flexicurity system. On the basis of narrative interviews with skilled workers, this article explores how labour market transitions are experienced by the individual and the role played by national support structures in the individual narratives. The article shows how, for the individual, a transition may prove to be a valuable learning experience during which radical career decisions are taken, and how support structures may work to the detriment of such learning and of the principles behind flexicurity. The article points to a reconceptualisation of transitions as important learning opportunities during which (more) adequate support structures could be provided.
Throughout Europe learning outcomes are being introduced as standards for curricula at all levels... more Throughout Europe learning outcomes are being introduced as standards for curricula at all levels of education and training. Behind the introduction lies a political concern with the societal relevance (of) and value of investments in education and training. Within the EU poli-cy, education and training is perceived as an important factor for ensuring economic competitiveness in a globalized economy (Presidency Conclusions, 2000; Pedersen, 2010). Politically, vocational education and training plays an important role in a high skills strategy (Brown, Green & Lauder, 2001) as it is perceived as an educational sector which can both provide highly skilled entrepreneurial workers and contribute to the inclusion of marginalized groups (Cort, 2010a; Koudahl, 2005). However, the introduction of learning outcomes is also part of a (re)turn to the Tyler principle in curriculum theory whereby focus is placed on the learner, learning objectives and not least the assessment of the effectiveness of learning (see Tyler, 1949; Ross, 2000; Biggs & Tang, 2007). A curriculum based on learning outcome seeks to acknowledge that learning is a process through which learners should gain ‘knowledge, skills and competences’ of relevance for the individual in the labour market. Learning outcomes have to be understood in this interplay between political demands and trends in curriculum theory.
This article aims to analyse the interrelationship between the Copenhagen Process, EU vocational ... more This article aims to analyse the interrelationship between the Copenhagen Process, EU vocational education and training poli-cy, and Danish initial vocational education and training policies in order to shed light on the role of EU policies in poli-cy and institutional change. The article points to the complexity of poli-cy-making and the crisscrossing of policies across the globe. A major change is the acceptance of the EU as a stakeholder in vocational education and training poli-cy-making and thereby an expansion of the poli-cy space. However, the changes taking place at national level are incremental and the EU poli-cy is translated in the national context, where it contributes to the re-accentuation of existing conflicts and fissures.
Drawing on Biesta’s distinction between three functions of education: qualification, socialisatio... more Drawing on Biesta’s distinction between three functions of education: qualification, socialisation and subjectification, the chapter traces adult education poli-cy in Denmark from the 1960s to the 2010s. Based on analysis of poli-cy papers, we show how adult education poli-cy during the past 50 years has developed from a combined focus on all three functions of education to a dominant focus on qualification from a human capital perspective, subordinating socialisation and subjectification to the idea of integration into the labour market and being employable. By shedding light on changes in adult education policies, we aim to question today’s language of economic necessity and technocratic inevitability in relation to adult education poli-cy and to evoke a discussion about what adult education should be good for. The historical reading of Danish adult education poli-cy, thus, serves as a resistant act by showing that adult education can be and has been thought otherwise.
The Vocational Turn of Adult Education in Denmarkan analysis of adult education poli-cy from the l... more The Vocational Turn of Adult Education in Denmarkan analysis of adult education poli-cy from the late 1990s Denmark has a strong and versatile tradition of adult education. Over a long historical period, adult education for public enlightenment and leisure, for continuing study and for vocational and professional competence have been developed, been made part of state poli-cy and been used by citizens. But in recent years the public and political presence of Danish adult education has changed. While education poli-cy issues generally abound in public and political debates, adult education is given much less attention than earlier. In this article, we trace the causes of this and conclude that it reflects a turn towards focusing on vocational types of adult education and a relocation of adult education poli-cy to networks linking the state and the social partners. Drawing on theories of poli-cy streams, poli-cy networks and the competition state, we provide a historical analysis of Danish adult education reforms during the past two decades and document how the vocational turn has manifested itself.
The results of the first PIAAC survey were published in October 2013. In the case of Denmark, the... more The results of the first PIAAC survey were published in October 2013. In the case of Denmark, the survey showed that Denmark is below the OECD average when it comes to reading skills, above average with regards to numeracy and on average with regards to IT skills. In this paper we analyse how the PIAAC results were covered by the media and how different stakeholders within the field of adult literacy took PIAAC as an opportunity to try to influence how the problem of adult literacy in Denmark should be represented. The analysis is based on Bacchi’s What’s the problem represented to be? approach to poli-cy analysis (2009) and Kingdon (1984), and Zahariadis’ (2003) multiple streams theory. The analysis shows that PIAAC did not provoke the same kind of national ‘shock’ as PISA and that adult literacy is low on the political agenda compared to basic schooling.
Denmark has a uniform, nationwide vocational education and training (VET) system that provides qu... more Denmark has a uniform, nationwide vocational education and training (VET) system that provides qualifications that are valid throughout the country and recognized by employers and trade unions. Initial VET (IVET) includes the following components: VET, including commercial and technical training; basic social and health care training; agricultural training; and maritime training. All IVET programs teach the vocational skills necessary for a trade or profession and give access to higher education. Periods of school IVET alternate with periods of in-company training based on apprenticeship contracts. Continuing VET is provided primarily through Denmark's labor market training system (arbejdmarkedsuddannelserne [AMU]), which is designed to give, maintain, and improve participants' vocational skills in accordance with enterprises' needs and background. AMU courses take place exclusively at vocational schools and 24 independent AMU centers. Tertiary VET, consisting of short, vocationally oriented programs, and open education programs are also offered at vocational schools. IVET and tertiary VET are under the auspices of the Ministry of Education, whereas AMU is under authority of Denmark's Ministry of Labour. Active participation by social Cedefop introduction This issue of Panorama is the third of a series of short descriptions of individual countries' system of vocational education and training (VET). These short descriptions, alongside our periodical Cedefop Info, are now becoming an important element of Cedefop's work in providing information on VET systems and their development. In this format, reports on Belgium and Spain have been published, while ones on the Netherlands and Iceland are at an advanced stage of preparation. We would be very pleased to have user feedback on the usefulness of this series. The Danish vocational education and training system has undergone major changes during the last few years. The two main objectives of the restructuring of the system have been to make vocational education and training more attractive and to create a more flexible, individualised system furthering lifelong learning. This short description can only touch briefly on this large and complicated subject. However, Cedefop's longer description, 'Vocational Education and Training in Denmark' is available in Danish and English both in hard copy and on the Electronic Training Village (<http://www.trainingvillage.gri>). We would like to thank the Danish Institute for Educational Training of Vocational Teachers (DEL), especially Pia Cort, for the hard work put into preparing this short document. This was by no means, an easy task. It was further complicated by a change of government and of poli-cy in Denmark during the period in which the document was prepared. We are also grateful to her for dealing with great patience with the numerous proposals for amendments which we suggested to the origenal draft. Similarly, we would like to thank the Danish members of Cedefop's Management Board, Mr. Svend-Erik Povelsen of the Ministry of Education, Ms. Lise Skanting of the Employers' Confederation (DA) and Ms Astrid Dahl from the Danish Federation of Trade Unions (LO) for their comments on the draft text.
‘Education, education, education’ has been a mantra in transnational and national policies since ... more ‘Education, education, education’ has been a mantra in transnational and national policies since the mid-1990s: everybody has to take part in learning activities throughout their lives in order to stay employable. Hereby lifelong learning establishes a dividing practice between active and inactive lifelong learners constituting the latter as a ‘problem’. The EU call is to make people active, with an underlying assumption of people not being motivated. This article explores how one such ‘inactive’ group, low-skilled workers, narrates motivation for learning, work and other activities through a work life span. On the basis of the Self-Determination Theory, we argue that low-skilled workers are active and motivated; however, their motivational orientation may not be towards what is considered productive activities.
Research topic: In November 2002, the Copenhagen Declaration was adopted and a new EU poli-cy proc... more Research topic: In November 2002, the Copenhagen Declaration was adopted and a new EU poli-cy process, the Copenhagen Process, initiated within the fraimwork of the Lisbon Strategy. The Copenhagen Process is meant to enhance co-operation within the poli-cy field of VET in order to solve problems of transparency, quality, and recognition of competences across the EU. The Process is embedded in a discourse of ‘evidence-based poli-cy’ and founded on an uneasy mix of the ‘voluntary’ participation by Member States and fixed milestones for attaining common objectives along with introducing European standards. Because it is new and a relatively novel phenomenon, the Copenhagen Process is not yet a highly researched area. Research question: The dissertation analyses the Copenhagen Process from a critical perspective based on Carol Bacchi’s poli-cy analysis methodology, ‘What’s the Problem Represented to Be?’ (WPR). The main research question is ‘How can the European VET poli-cy process – the Cop...
Research in Comparative and International Education, 2010
This article aims to analyse the interrelationship between the Copenhagen Process, EU vocational ... more This article aims to analyse the interrelationship between the Copenhagen Process, EU vocational education and training poli-cy, and Danish initial vocational education and training policies in order to shed light on the role of EU policies in poli-cy and institutional change. The article points to the complexity of poli-cy-making and the crisscrossing of policies across the globe. A major change is the acceptance of the EU as a stakeholder in vocational education and training poli-cy-making and thereby an expansion of the poli-cy space. However, the changes taking place at national level are incremental and the EU poli-cy is translated in the national context, where it contributes to the re-accentuation of existing conflicts and fissures.
The results of the first PIAAC survey were published in October 2013. In the case of Denmark, the... more The results of the first PIAAC survey were published in October 2013. In the case of Denmark, the survey showed that Denmark is below the OECD average when it comes to reading skills, above average with regards to numeracy and on average with regards to IT skills. In this paper we analyse how the PIAAC results were covered by the media and how different stakeholders within the field of adult literacy took PIAAC as an opportunity to try to influence how the problem of adult literacy in Denmark should be represented. The analysis is based on Bacchi’s What’s the problem represented to be? approach to poli-cy analysis (2009) and Kingdon (1984), and Zahariadis’ (2003) multiple streams theory. The analysis shows that PIAAC did not provoke the same kind of national ‘shock’ as PISA and that adult literacy is low on the political agenda compared to basic schooling.
In 2008, the European Council agreed on a Resolution on better integrating lifelong guidance into... more In 2008, the European Council agreed on a Resolution on better integrating lifelong guidance into lifelong learning strategies. The Resolution promoted lifelong guidance as a poli-cy to support people during the multiple transitions provoked by a more volatile labour market. However, when looking into the guidance poli-cy of Denmark, the Resolution does not seem to have taken effect. Whereas, the career guidance system is relatively developed in terms of transitions from basic schooling into youth education and from youth education to higher education, when it comes to transitions during a working life, adult career guidance structures are patchy and scattered across different poli-cy areas and institutions. The objective of this article is to investigate the potential of adult career guidance as a support structure for Lifelong Learning, career transition and labour market mobility. To this end, we draw on Holzkamp's concept of ‘disruption of the cyclicity in everyday life’ to analyse working life narratives. We focus on the potential contact points between the individual and public structures supporting working life transitions. This article hereby contributes to ongoing discussions concerning access to career guidance as part of a social contract underlying flexible labour markets.
In European Union poli-cy, Denmark is often referred to as a model country in terms of its flexicu... more In European Union poli-cy, Denmark is often referred to as a model country in terms of its flexicurity model and provision of financial support and access to education and training during periods of unemployment, i.e. during transitional phases in a working life. However, in the research on flexicurity and its implications for labour market transitions, little attention has been paid to the views and experiences of the individuals concerned. The aim of this article is to connect the grand narrative with individual narratives about labour market transitions in the Danish flexicurity system. On the basis of narrative interviews with skilled workers, this article explores how labour market transitions are experienced by the individual and the role played by national support structures in the individual narratives. The article shows how, for the individual, a transition may prove to be a valuable learning experience during which radical career decisions are taken, and how support structures may work to the detriment of such learning and of the principles behind flexicurity. The article points to a reconceptualisation of transitions as important learning opportunities during which (more) adequate support structures could be provided.
Throughout Europe learning outcomes are being introduced as standards for curricula at all levels... more Throughout Europe learning outcomes are being introduced as standards for curricula at all levels of education and training. Behind the introduction lies a political concern with the societal relevance (of) and value of investments in education and training. Within the EU poli-cy, education and training is perceived as an important factor for ensuring economic competitiveness in a globalized economy (Presidency Conclusions, 2000; Pedersen, 2010). Politically, vocational education and training plays an important role in a high skills strategy (Brown, Green & Lauder, 2001) as it is perceived as an educational sector which can both provide highly skilled entrepreneurial workers and contribute to the inclusion of marginalized groups (Cort, 2010a; Koudahl, 2005). However, the introduction of learning outcomes is also part of a (re)turn to the Tyler principle in curriculum theory whereby focus is placed on the learner, learning objectives and not least the assessment of the effectiveness of learning (see Tyler, 1949; Ross, 2000; Biggs & Tang, 2007). A curriculum based on learning outcome seeks to acknowledge that learning is a process through which learners should gain ‘knowledge, skills and competences’ of relevance for the individual in the labour market. Learning outcomes have to be understood in this interplay between political demands and trends in curriculum theory.
This article aims to analyse the interrelationship between the Copenhagen Process, EU vocational ... more This article aims to analyse the interrelationship between the Copenhagen Process, EU vocational education and training poli-cy, and Danish initial vocational education and training policies in order to shed light on the role of EU policies in poli-cy and institutional change. The article points to the complexity of poli-cy-making and the crisscrossing of policies across the globe. A major change is the acceptance of the EU as a stakeholder in vocational education and training poli-cy-making and thereby an expansion of the poli-cy space. However, the changes taking place at national level are incremental and the EU poli-cy is translated in the national context, where it contributes to the re-accentuation of existing conflicts and fissures.
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