John E Staller

Botanical Research Institute of Texas, Research, Research Associate

The Field Museum, Anthropology, Emeritus

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I am an archaeologist specialized in the anthropological and biological sciences. I have taught, both undergraduate and graduate courses in Archaeology and Anthropology. I have extensive experience researching and analyzing ceramic, lithic, and metallurgical museum collections both in the US and various countries in Latin America. My research with museum collections has generated numerous publications. I have considerable editorial expertise and have edited papers for journals and publishers. I have numerous publications with 15th and 16th century ethnohistoric accounts regarding the Spanish conquest of the New World, particularly the Andes and Mesoamerica.
Supervisors: Graduate Mentor: Dr. David A. Freidel (Washington University in St. Louis), Dr. Fred Wendorf (Southern Methodist University), and Dr. Anthony Marks (Southern Methodist University)

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Noel B. Salazar

KU Leuven

John P Hart

New York State Museum

Renzo Taddei

Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP)

Julian D Reynolds

Trinity College Dublin

David Stuart

The University of Texas at Austin

Michael Spivey

University of California, Merced

Dorian Q Fuller

University College London

John Barry

Queen's University Belfast

Kristen J Gremillion

Ohio State University

Eve Emshwiller

University of Wisconsin-Madison

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Books by John E Staller

Andean Foodways: Pre-Columbian, Colonial, and Contemporary Andean Food and Culture., edited by John E. Staller

Frontispiece, Table of Contents: Andean Foodways: Pre-Columbian, Colonial, and Contemporary Food and Culture, 2021

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Staller, John E. (ed.) 2008. Pre-Columbian Landscapes of Creation and Origin

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Staller, John E. 2010. Maize Cobs and Cultures: History of Zea mays L.

Maize Cobs and Cultures: History of Zea mays L. , Jan 28, 2010

The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does... more The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. Cover illustration: Maize varieties around Pisac, Peru are still grown on terraces constructed by the Inca.

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An Introduction to the Histories of Maize in the Americas

Histories of Maize: Multidisciplinary Approaches to the Prehistory, Linguistics, Biogeography, Domestication, and Evolution of Maize. edited by John E. Staller, Robert H. Tykot and Bruce F. Benz., pp. xxi-xxv. Elsevier/Academic Press, Copyright 2015. Taylor & Francis Grp., NY: Routledge., Jul 25, 2006

The Italian explorer Girolamo Benzoni (c. 1541-55) recorded the steps involved in processing husk... more The Italian explorer Girolamo Benzoni (c. 1541-55) recorded the steps involved in processing husked corn to make fresh dough. First the kernels were ground with a mano and metate and then patted into small cakes and finally cooked on a comal or griddle (from Girolamo Benzoni, La historia del mondo nvovo di M. Girolamo Benzoni Milanese, Venetia, F. Rampazeto. 1565. p. 56, verso). Images such as this woodcut and accounts from various chroniclers who came to the New World emphasized the role of maize as a primary staple, the staff of life, essentially synonymous to Old World wheat and barley. These early descriptions and the later role of maize as one of the world's primary economic staples predisposed many scholars to emphasize and, in some instances, assert that Zea mays L. was the catalyst to the development of civilization in this hemisphere. The contributions in this volume demonstrate that its role was more complex and varied than had been previously assumed. These histories of maize show that in some cases its symbolic role to Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier

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Pre-Columbian Foodways: Interdisciplinary Approaches to Food, Culture, and Markets in Ancient Mesoamerica

by John E Staller and Michael Carrasco

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Staller, John E., Robert H. Tykot, and Bruce Benz (eds.) 2010. Histories of Maize in Mesoamerica: Multidisciplinary Approaches

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Staller, John E. and Brian Stross 2013. Lightning in the Andes and Mesoamerica: Pre-Columbian, Colonial, and Contemporary Perspectives.

Lightning in the Andes and Mesoamerica: Pre-Columbian, Colonial, and Contemporary Perspectives. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press., 2013

Lighting is a primary source of veneration and spiritual power in the ancient world and and conti... more Lighting is a primary source of veneration and spiritual power in the ancient world and and continues to have significance in some contemporary religions throughout the world. Multidisciplinary evidence presented in this book focuses upon the roles of lightning in the Andes and Mesoamerica. Spanish chroniclers state that St James or Santiago, the patron saint of Spain, was associated with thunder and lightning. Such symbolic associations played major roles in the conquest of these regions of the New World, particularly in converting indigenous populations to Catholic orthodoxy. Andean ritual practices and religious beliefs surrounding the lightning veneration called Catequilla or Catequil and spread throughout the cordillera in the context of Inca expansion. Evidence from Andean cosmogony and cosmology suggests earlier forms of lightning veneration existed among various cultures along the coast and in the cordillera. In Mesoamerica lightning had spiritual associations to mountains, caves, maize, serpents and various Pre-Columbian deities. Ethnographic accounts also indicate associations to rain, mushrooms, frogs, fish, and stone tools in Mesoamerica. Lightning coitinues to have close associations to contemporary shamanism, altered states of consciousness, ecstatic trance and co-essences (or animal spirit companions). These associations and beliefs provide a basis for understanding levels of syncretism of such religious beliefs since European contact. The book provides an analogue for tracing back pre-Columbian manifestations of such religious beliefs and ritual practices, and their iconographic and architectural representations in earlier civilizations.

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Staller, John E. and Michael Carrasco (eds.) 2010. Pre-Columbian Foodways: Interdisciplinary Approaches to Food, Culture, and Markets in Ancient Mesoamerica

Frontispiece, Table of Contents, Introduction, Pre-Columbian Foodways in Mesoamerica. In Pre-Columbian Foodways: Interdisciplinary Approaches to Food, Culture and Markets in Ancient Mesoamerica., edited by John Edward Staller, and Michael Carrasco., pp. i-xiii, 1-20. New York: Springer., Mar 2010

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Staller, John E. and Elizabeth J. Currie (eds.) 2001. Mortuary Practices and Ritual Associations: Shamanic Elements in Prehistoric Funerary Contexts in South America.

Mortuary Practices and Ritual Associations: Shamanic Elements in Prehistoric Funerary Contexts in South America., 2001

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Papers by John E Staller

High Altitude Zea mays L. (Tunqu) Cultivation and Endemism in the Lake Titicaca Basin

Journal of Botanical Research, Mar 1, 2016

Botanists and plant biologists have long asserted maize (Zea mays L.) can not be cultivated above... more Botanists and plant biologists have long asserted maize (Zea mays L.) can not be cultivated above 3,600 masl. Multidisciplinary evidence has documented an abundance of a particular variety of maize called tunqu by indigenous Aymara speaking populations and cultivated on terraces between 3810 to 4100 masl around the Copacabana Peninsula, in the Lake Titicaca Basin, Bolivia. This is the only known maize variety in the world cultivated above 3600 masl. The Titicaca Basin was transformed by various ancient cultures and civilizations and pre-Columbian landscape modifications such as raised fields and terraces. Such modifications were primarily geared to the cultivation of food crops. Multidisciplinary evidence indicates maize was and continues to be central to indigenous religious rituals and rites in the altiplano. Colonial accounts emphasize this maize was primarily consumed as a fermented intoxicant, maize beer (aqha, or chicha). It was considered sacred and also used for ritual offerings. Such practices and beliefs appear to have ancient origens and have been documented archaeologically with the Yaya Mama religious tradition (ca. 800 BCE). This maize variety has phenotypic characteristic unlike any other known landrace and these characteristics and its adaptation to such altitudes strongly suggest it may be endemic. The Andes are particularly well suited to studying the phenotypic diversity of plants, because the landscape is characterized by discrete ecological zones, which support specific suites of domesticated plants. The Titicaca Basin represents a unique microenvironment where evapotranspiration from the lake reduces the diurnal variation in temperatures enough to permit cultivation of maize. Its cultivation, preparation and consumption among indigenous cultures are analyzed as are its botanical and biological characteristics which distinguish this landrace and support the contention it is endemic.

Key Words: Andes; Maize; Botany; Ethnobotany; Archaeology; Ecology; Plant Biology

San catequilla de Pichichincha: lightning Huacas, ancient astronomy and Inca expansion

Revista de arqueología americana, 2017

High Altitude Maize (Zea mays L.) Cultivation in the Lake Titicaca Basin and Endemism

The 82nd Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, 2018

Ancient El Niño Events, Human Adaptation, and Ecological Transformations: Early Formative Period (2400-1450 B.C.) Occupations in Southern Coastal Ecuador

Diálogo andino, Jun 1, 2013

El Niño-Southern Oscillation is a warming of surface sea temperatures in the eastern Pacific Ocea... more El Niño-Southern Oscillation is a warming of surface sea temperatures in the eastern Pacific Ocean. Such climatic and oceanographic perturbations have dramatic impacts upon human adaptation and sociocultural development. Evidence multidisciplinary Artificial a mound of dirt in the ceremonial center of Valdivia The Emerancia have documented the abandonment of the site in relation to the El Niño phenomenon. The intial site abandonment was in response to intense or mega event dated to 2150 BC, associated withe the formation of the beach, singing fossil reoccupation C14 and dated ca 2200-1450 BC and final abandonment dated to 1450 B.C. Final abandonment is associated with an earthquake and a short-lived reoccupation. Data from excavation, regional settlement patterns and shellfish frequencies are presented to determine whether repeated and final site abandonment was related to El Niño. Results indicate widespread environmental degradation and geomorphological changes to the surrounding coastline were related to El Niño, and that it was clearly a factor to sociocultural development and adaptive responses. These data explore chronology, assess the intensities, and measure the effects of ancient El Niño events upon pre-Hispanic occupations this ceremonial center and pre-Hispanic occupations along the Arenillas River valley,

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An Examination of the Palaeobotanical and Chronological Evidence for an Early Introduction of Maize (Zea mays L.) into South America: A Response to Pearsall

Journal of Archaeological Science, Mar 1, 2003

In a recent article, Pearsall (2002) essentially agreed with the methodology for tracing the use ... more In a recent article, Pearsall (2002) essentially agreed with the methodology for tracing the use of maize using opal phytolith assemblages from food residues in utilized ceramics employed at the Valdivia ceremonial centre of La Emerenciana. However, in contrast to our multiple lines of evidence suggesting a late 2200-1900 cal  introduction and largely ceremonial use of maize, Pearsall maintains an earlier (8 to 7000 ) arrival and intensive economic use of maize solely on the basis of opal phytoliths from archaeological soils in Valdivia I-III contexts at Real Alto. An examination of the typological, methodological, chronological, morphological, genetic, and archaeological data from various regions of the Americas suggests that an early introduction into South America is inconsistent with our multiple lines of evidence. Analysis of Pearsall's cross-shaped typology and methodology for the identification of maize phytoliths indicates it is both typologically inconsistent and methodologically unreliable to assessing the presence and/or significance of the plant in Valdivia. Our multidisciplinary evidence indicate maize entered coastal Ecuador more recently than had been previously assumed, and maintained a ceremonial, rather than solely an economic role for most of Andean prehistory.

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San Catequilla de Pichincha and Catequil, the cult to Lightning (Illapa) in the context of Inca expansion

The 80th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, 2015

An Endemic Maize (Zea mays L.) Landrace on the Copacabana Peninsula, Bolivia

The 84th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, 2019

Andean Foodways: Interdisciplinary Approaches to Pre-Columbian, Colonial, and Contemporary Food and Culture

The Latin American studies book series, Dec 2, 2020

The Jeli Phase Complex at La Emerenciana, A Late Valdivia Site in Southern El Oro Province, Ecuador

Andean past, 2000

San Catequilla de Pichincha: Rayos, huacas, astronomía antigua, y expansión Inca

The sanctification of the natural world and concepts and beliefs surrounding the sacred places or... more The sanctification of the natural world and concepts and beliefs surrounding the sacred places or huacas are ancient in the Andes. Scholars have emphasized the importance of religious cults to the early spread of ancient technologies, ethnogenesis or cultural horizons, and appearance of distinct kinds of huacas and ceremonial centers. One of the most important huacas associated with Inca expansion was Sant Catequilla de Pichincha situated on a on a clifftop in the Pomasqui Valley of northern highland Ecuador. Its importance is related to its cosmological and symbolic associations to the Catequil religious cult to lightning (Illapa). It is the only known Inca huaca to be located directly under the equator at precisely 0°0’02” South Latitude. Locations with toponyms of Catequil or Catequilla in Colonial Peru and Ecuador are generally sacred places located high hills or cliffs and where natural springs occur which have stone platforms and pillars or gnomes. Research presented here represents an analysis of the astronomical functions of the circular and rectangular stone platforms at this site and how they relate to the surrounding landscape with regard to calculating solar and lunar cycles. Spanish chroniclers stated the platform at San Catequilla was given ritual offerings and highly venerated by indigenous communities during the Late Horizon and early Colonial Period * Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, USA. Revista de Arqueología Americana No. 35 ISSN 0188-3631 2017: 87-127 88 • John E. Staller San Catequilla de Pichincha: Lightning Huacas... because of its association to lightning and importance to the reckoning of astronomical cycles.

Andean Foodways: Interdisciplinary Approaches to Pre-Columbian and Colonial Food and Culture

The 81st Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, 2016

Andean Foodways: Pre-Columbian, Colonial, and Contemporary Andean Food and Culture., edited by John E. Staller

Frontispiece, Table of Contents: Andean Foodways: Pre-Columbian, Colonial, and Contemporary Food and Culture, 2021

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Staller, John E. (ed.) 2008. Pre-Columbian Landscapes of Creation and Origin

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Staller, John E. 2010. Maize Cobs and Cultures: History of Zea mays L.

Maize Cobs and Cultures: History of Zea mays L. , Jan 28, 2010

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An Introduction to the Histories of Maize in the Americas

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Pre-Columbian Foodways: Interdisciplinary Approaches to Food, Culture, and Markets in Ancient Mesoamerica

by John E Staller and Michael Carrasco

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Staller, John E., Robert H. Tykot, and Bruce Benz (eds.) 2010. Histories of Maize in Mesoamerica: Multidisciplinary Approaches

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Staller, John E. and Brian Stross 2013. Lightning in the Andes and Mesoamerica: Pre-Columbian, Colonial, and Contemporary Perspectives.

Lightning in the Andes and Mesoamerica: Pre-Columbian, Colonial, and Contemporary Perspectives. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press., 2013

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Staller, John E. and Michael Carrasco (eds.) 2010. Pre-Columbian Foodways: Interdisciplinary Approaches to Food, Culture, and Markets in Ancient Mesoamerica

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Staller, John E. and Elizabeth J. Currie (eds.) 2001. Mortuary Practices and Ritual Associations: Shamanic Elements in Prehistoric Funerary Contexts in South America.

Mortuary Practices and Ritual Associations: Shamanic Elements in Prehistoric Funerary Contexts in South America., 2001

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High Altitude Zea mays L. (Tunqu) Cultivation and Endemism in the Lake Titicaca Basin

Journal of Botanical Research, Mar 1, 2016

San catequilla de Pichichincha: lightning Huacas, ancient astronomy and Inca expansion

Revista de arqueología americana, 2017

High Altitude Maize (Zea mays L.) Cultivation in the Lake Titicaca Basin and Endemism

The 82nd Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, 2018

Ancient El Niño Events, Human Adaptation, and Ecological Transformations: Early Formative Period (2400-1450 B.C.) Occupations in Southern Coastal Ecuador

Diálogo andino, Jun 1, 2013

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An Examination of the Palaeobotanical and Chronological Evidence for an Early Introduction of Maize (Zea mays L.) into South America: A Response to Pearsall

Journal of Archaeological Science, Mar 1, 2003

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San Catequilla de Pichincha and Catequil, the cult to Lightning (Illapa) in the context of Inca expansion

The 80th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, 2015

An Endemic Maize (Zea mays L.) Landrace on the Copacabana Peninsula, Bolivia

The 84th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, 2019

Andean Foodways: Interdisciplinary Approaches to Pre-Columbian, Colonial, and Contemporary Food and Culture

The Latin American studies book series, Dec 2, 2020

The Jeli Phase Complex at La Emerenciana, A Late Valdivia Site in Southern El Oro Province, Ecuador

Andean past, 2000

San Catequilla de Pichincha: Rayos, huacas, astronomía antigua, y expansión Inca

Andean Foodways: Interdisciplinary Approaches to Pre-Columbian and Colonial Food and Culture

The 81st Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, 2016

Maize in Andean Food and Culture: Interdisciplinary Approaches

The Latin American studies book series, Dec 2, 2020

Interdisciplinary evidence on Andean maize (Zea mays L.) consumption indicates it was primarily c... more Interdisciplinary evidence on Andean maize (Zea mays L.) consumption indicates it was primarily consumed as a fermented intoxicant or maize beer (chicha). Its consumption with other food crops and meat was that it was commonly added to stews, or as a side dish with meat and fish. Unlike Mesoamerica maize was not processed in the Andes. Processing maize in an alkali solution, such as lime water [CaOH2] or wood ash then cooking or steeping it before grinding it into flour (masa) with manos and metates and making it into tamales, tortillas etc., a process referred to as nixtamal, incrementally increased its nutritional value, and economic importance. However, this was not the case in the Andes. Nevertheless, maize played a central role in the rise of Andean civilizations and complexity primarily because of its roles in Pre-Columbian Andean rituals and rites. Ethnohistoric accounts and ethnographic evidence are presented indicating that despite the fact the Spaniards preferred maze to other food staples, maize beer consumption was rejected because of its association and importance to traditional rituals, rites, and ethnic identity among indigenous Andeans. This research on maize also indicates changes in preparation and consumption and associations with cuisines, rites, rituals, and rituals.

The Social, Symbolic, and Economic Significance of Zea mays L. in the Late Horizon Period

Elsevier eBooks, 2006

Geological and Archaeological Evidence of El Nino Events along the Coast of El Oro Province Ecuador: Excavations at La Emerenciana a Late Valdivia (ca. 2200 1450 B.C.) Ceremonial Center

Journal of Bioremediation and Biodegradation, 2015

Figure 1: Southwestern coastal Ecuador showing the Gulf of Guayaquil, Straits of Jambelí and Vald... more Figure 1: Southwestern coastal Ecuador showing the Gulf of Guayaquil, Straits of Jambelí and Valdivia sites, modern cities, as well as towns mentioned in the text. dated to ca. 1450 B.C., and associated with an earthquake and a shortlived reoccupation (Tables1). Were repeated site abandonments a result of El Niño or were abandonments also associated with earthquake

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Ethnohistoric Sources on Foodways, Feasts, and Festivals in Mesoamerica

Springer eBooks, Sep 30, 2009

In the last 30 years, archaeologists worldwide have expanded their interests to include the signi... more In the last 30 years, archaeologists worldwide have expanded their interests to include the significance of foodways to our understanding of prehistory. Many of the theories and ideas scholars currently have regarding the economic and cultural significance of food to the development of Mesoamerican civilization were directly influenced by ethnohistorians and sixteenth century documents, indigenous pictorial codices, and interpretations of

La domesticación de paisajes: ¿Cuáles son los componentes primarios del Formativo?

Estudios atacameños, 2006

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Dimensions of Place: The Significance of Centers to the Development of Andean Civilization: An Exploration of the Ushnu Concept

Springer eBooks, Mar 11, 2008

... of Centers to the Development of Andean Civilization: An Exploration of the Ushnu Concept Joh... more

Ethnohistory: Impressions and Perceptions of Maize

Springer eBooks, Oct 29, 2009

The sixteenth century documents, pictorial codices, and iconographic and hieroglyphic texts are a... more The sixteenth century documents, pictorial codices, and iconographic and hieroglyphic texts are all evaluated to consider how earlier Indo-European perceptions of the New World influenced our current understanding of the roles and importance of maize to sociocultural development. Primary focus is given to the earliest primary and secondary ethnohistoric accounts regarding the role of maize to New World cultures. Since all the sixteenth century accounts were written to be part of history, they are generally narrative and descriptive (Carmack 1973). Their analytical and historical importance is not only that they provide a picture of relatively pristine native culture (see, e.g., Cortes 1963 (1485–1547?); 1991 (1519–1526); Diaz 1953 (1567–1575); and Landa 1975 (1566)), but also that they are a reflection of the sixteenth century New Word culture and their perceptions of the world around them. The only regions where native documents compare in ethnohistoric value to the Spanish sources are those written in Mexico and Guatemala during the sixteenth century (Carmack 1973; Carmack et al. 1996; and Barber and Berdan 1998). Most of the preHispanic codices were destroyed in various campaigns to eradicate pagan idolatry (Acosta 1961 (1590); Duran 1971 (1581); Landa 1975 (1566); Las Casas 1992 (1552); and Sepulveda and Las Casas 1975 (1540)). Those codices produced after the conquest are largely commissioned by the Spanish nobility and illustrated by indigenous and mestizo scribes who had converted to Catholicism. Consequently, the content of most such colonial indigenous texts were conditioned to varying degrees by sixteenth century European perceptions and cultural biases (Staller 2009).

Ethnobotanic, Interdisciplinary and Multidisciplinary Methodologies

Springer eBooks, Oct 29, 2009

This chapter is primarily focused on the methodological approaches and technological innovations ... more This chapter is primarily focused on the methodological approaches and technological innovations used by the archaeologists and ethnobotanists to answer the larger questions on plant domestication, early agriculture, and human adaptation. The research on maize has generally evoked the broader, more theoretical questions surrounding early agriculture and its role in complex socio-cultural development. However, the early archaeological research on plant domestication in the New World was primarily focused on the origens of maize and the various roles of maize in such developmental and evolutionary processes. Particular emphasis is laid on ethnobotany, plant macrobotanical remains (kernels, cobs, etc., recovered primarily from archaeological sites), microfossils (pollen and phytoliths, taken from lakes and swamps as well as archaeological contexts), and paleodiet through bone chemistry involving carbon and strontium isotope analysis. The scientific literature comprising research from these disciplines has significantly influenced the archaeological reconstruction of the roles of maize in the ancient New World economies in the past three decades. Such data have provided an ever-increasing detail on the contextual associations, and the economic importance of maize throughout prehistory. Most of the archaeological studies have been focused on issues of plant domestication and early agriculture in the Americas. Therefore, discussion on maize must necessarily be within the context of such multidisciplinary research. In fact, few topics have generated as much theoretical speculation as the origen of agriculture and the role of maize in such adaptive and developmental changes.

Scientific, Botanical, and Biological Research on Maize

Springer eBooks, Oct 29, 2009

This chapter takes an historical approach to maize research. It is focused on early studies in th... more This chapter takes an historical approach to maize research. It is focused on early studies in the archaeological and biological sciences: How did these studies indirectly influence the current debates? How were these debates directly influenced by earlier research on plant domestication in the Old World? How are the methodological approaches taken by the New World archaeologists, specialized in domestication and early agriculture, different from those taken by such specialists in the Old World? How do these differences affect the history of research on the origens and spread of maize? Recent groundbreaking results from maize geneticists have indicated that earlier archaeological interpretations of plant domestication and the economic significance of maize need to be reconsidered, yet earlier research and interpretations continue to strongly influence the current research. The term domestication has come to be used in the archaeological and biological literature as referring to a symbiotic relationship among human populations, the local ecology, a mutualism or coevolution that is not necessarily dependent on human involvement, particularly with reference to resource management. In this volume, domestication is defined as the genetic change brought about in a biotic population as a result of interactions with humans, and leads to a dependence relationship (Benz and Staller 2006, p. 665). These definitions on the process of domestication are more in line with those generally published in the biological sciences. Prior to the recent developments in direct dating and molecular biology, archaeologists and historians perceived agricultural practices surrounding primary economic cultigens in terms of a culture history. There appears to have been a general consensus with regard to the economic importance of food plants such as maize in the ancient past, in part because maize was seen as analogous to wheat and barley in the Old World.

John E Staller

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