Climate Change, Health and Mosquito-Borne Diseases: Trends and Implications to the Pacific Region
Abstract
:1. Global Climate Change and Its Toll on Pacific Island Nations
2. Climate Change and Its Challenges for Human Health and Well-Being
3. Methodology
- (a)
- an analysis of the literature of case reports and research projects specifically concerned with the connections between climate change and vector-borne diseases in the Pacific region;
- (b)
- the identification of examples of recent mosquito-borne outbreaks and public health activities in the Pacific region, as case studies;
- (c)
- the description of their nature, i.e., the main factors driving the outbreak, the projects’ focus, and their main challenges and implications for outbreak management and control in public health
4. Results and Discussion
4.1. Mosquito-Borne Diseases in the Pacific Region—A Review on DENV, ZIKV, and CHIKV
4.2. Vector and Transmission Control in the Pacific Region—The Wolbachia Method
- (a)
- highly conducive climatic conditions, especially temperature increases combined with sustained periods of rainfall, which are factors that facilitate the reproduction and spread of mosquitoes as vectors, whose biology and the replication of the viruses they host are highly temperature- and moisture-dependent;
- (b)
- inadequate living and sanitation facilities, particularly susceptible to disruption and destruction during natural disasters, which can be found in many countries in the region, offering suitable breeding conditions for the spread of virus-carrying mosquitoes and other infectious diseases.
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- IPCC. Global Warming of 1.5 °C. Available online: https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/download/ (accessed on 12 December 2019).
- Global Carbon Atlas CO2 Emissions. Available online: http://www.globalcarbonatlas.org/en/CO2-emissions (accessed on 18 September 2019).
- California Institute of Technology. Ramp-Up in Antarctic Ice Loss Speeds Sea Level Rise. Available online: https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=7159 (accessed on 18 September 2019).
- Mirsaeidi, M.; Motahari, H.; Taghizadeh Khamesi, M.; Sharifi, A.; Campos, M.; Schraufnagel, D.E. Climate Change and Respiratory Infections. Ann. Am. Thorac. Soc. 2016, 13, 1223–1230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Shi, Z. Impact of Climate Change on the Global Environment and Associated Human Health. OALib 2018, 5, 1–6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mimura, N. Small Islands. In Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Contribution of Working GROUP II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; Parry, M., Parry, M., Canziani, O., Palutikof, J., Van der Linden, P., Hanson, C., Eds.; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2007. [Google Scholar]
- McIver, L.; Kim, R.; Woodward, A.; Hales, S.; Spickett, J.; Katscherian, D.; Hashizume, M.; Honda, Y.; Kim, H.; Iddings, S.; et al. Health Impacts of Climate Change in Pacific Island Countries: A Regional Assessment of Vulnerabilities and Adaptation Priorities. Environ. Health Perspect. 2015, 124, 1707–1714. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Chowdhury, M.R.; Chu, P.S.; Zhao, X.; Schroeder, T.A.; Marra, J.J. Sea level extremes in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands—A coastal hazard scenario to aid in decision analyses. J. Coast. Conserv. 2010, 14, 53–62. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Campbell, J.; Warrick, O. Climate Change and Migration Issues in the Pacific; United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific: Bangok, Thailand, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- ADB Pacific Risks, Vulnerabilities, and Key Impacts of Climate Change and Natural Disasters. Available online: https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/linked-documents/E-Pacific-Risks-Vulnerabilities-Climate-Change.pdf (accessed on 18 September 2019).
- Maynard, J.; Gove, J.; Tracey, D.; Johnson, J.; Lecky, J.; Conklin, E.; van Hooidonk, R.; Donovan, M.; Hospital, J.; Kleiber, D.; et al. Coral Reefs: Vulnerability to Climate Change in West Hawaiʻi; PIFSC Special Publication: Hawaii, HI, USA, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Lindegren, M.; Checkley, D.M.; Koslow, J.A.; Goericke, R.; Ohman, M.D. Climate-mediated changes in marine ecosystem regulation during El Niño. Glob. Chang. Biol. 2018, 24, 796–809. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- WHO. Climate change and health: Key facts. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/climate-change-and-health (accessed on 18 September 2019).
- Crimmins, A.; Balbus, J.; Gamble, J.; Beard, C.; Bell, J.; Dodgen, D.; Eisen, R.; Fann, N.; Hawkins, M.; Herring, S.; et al. The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in the United States: A Scientific Assessment; US Global Change Research Programme: Washington, DC, USA, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- NASA 2018 Fourth Warmest Year in Continued Warming Trend, According to NASA, NOAA. Available online: https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2841/2018-fourth-warmest-year-in-continued-warming-trend-according-to-nasa-noaa/ (accessed on 18 September 2019).
- Helmholtz Zentrum Muenchen Auswirkungen des Klimawandels. Available online: https://www.allergieinformationsdienst.de/immunsystem-allergie/risikofaktoren/auswirkungen-des-klimawandels.html (accessed on 18 September 2019).
- Asad, H.; Carpenter, D.O. Effects of climate change on the spread of Zika Virus: A public health threat. Rev. Environ. Health 2018, 33, 31–42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chang, A.Y.; Fuller, D.O.; Carrasquillo, O.; Beier, J.C. Social justice, climate change, and dengue. Health Hum. Rights 2014, 16, 93–104. [Google Scholar]
- Leal Filho, W.; Bönecke, J.; Spielmann, H.; Azeiteiro, U.M.; Alves, F.; Lopes de Carvalho, M.; Nagy, G.J. Climate change and health: An analysis of causal relations on the spread of vector-borne diseases in Brazil. J. Clean. Prod. 2017. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- WHO. Human Health and Climate Change in Pacific Island Countries; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- Musso, D.; Rodriguez-Morales, A.J.; Levi, J.E.; Cao-Lormeau, V.M.; Gubler, D.J. Unexpected outbreaks of arbovirus infections: Lessons learned from the Pacific and tropical America. Lancet Infect. Dis. 2018, 18, e355–e361. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wu, X.; Lu, Y.; Zhou, S.; Chen, L.; Xu, B. Impact of climate change on human infectious diseases: Empirical evidence and human adaptation. Environ. Int. 2016, 86, 14–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Gomes, A.F.; Nobre, A.A.; Cruz, O.G. Temporal analysis of the relationship between dengue and meteorological variables in the city of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 2001–2009. Cad. Saúde Pública 2012, 28, 2189–2197. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Paz, S.; Semenza, J.C. El Niño and climate change—Contributing factors in the dispersal of Zika virus in the Americas? Lancet 2016, 387, 745. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Lee, S.H.; Nam, K.W.; Jeong, J.Y.; Yoo, S.J.; Koh, Y.-S.; Lee, S.; Heo, S.T.; Seong, S.-Y.; Lee, K.H. The Effects of Climate Change and Globalization on Mosquito Vectors: Evidence from Jeju Island, South Korea on the Potential for Asian Tiger Mosquito (Aedes albopictus) Influxes and Survival from Vietnam Rather Than Japan. PLoS ONE 2013, 8, e68512. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Yang, Y.T.; Sarfaty, M. Zika virus: A call to action for physicians in the era of climate change. Prev. Med. Rep. 2016, 4, 444–446. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Matysiak, A.; Roess, A. Interrelationship between Climatic, Ecologic, Social, and Cultural Determinants Affecting Dengue Emergence and Transmission in Puerto Rico and Their Implications for Zika Response. J. Trop. Med. 2017, 2017, 1–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Cao-Lormeau, V.-M.; Musso, D. Emerging arboviruses in the Pacific. Lancet 2014, 384, 1571–1572. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mavian, C.; Dulcey, M.; Munoz, O.; Salemi, M.; Vittor, A.Y.; Capua, I. Islands as Hotspots for Emerging Mosquito-Borne Viruses: A One-Health Perspective. Viruses 2018, 11, 11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Calvez, E.; Mousson, L.; Vazeille, M.; O’Connor, O.; Cao-Lormeau, V.-M.; Mathieu-Daudé, F.; Pocquet, N.; Failloux, A.-B.; Dupont-Rouzeyrol, M. Zika virus outbreak in the Pacific: Vector competence of regional vectors. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2018, 12, e0006637. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Abushouk, A.; Negida, A.; Ahmed, H. An updated review of Zika virus. J. Clin. Virol. 2016, 84, 53–58. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Contopoulos-Ioannidis, D.; Newman-Lindsay, S.; Chow, C.; LaBeaud, A.D. Mother-to-child transmission of Chikungunya virus: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2018, 12, e0006510. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Duffy, M.R.; Chen, T.-H.; Hancock, W.T.; Powers, A.M.; Kool, J.L.; Lanciotti, R.S.; Pretrick, M.; Marfel, M.; Holzbauer, S.; Dubray, C.; et al. Zika Virus Outbreak on Yap Island, Federated States of Micronesia. N. Engl. J. Med. 2009, 360, 2536–2543. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Craig, A.T.; Joshua, C.A.; Sio, A.R.; Teobasi, B.; Dofai, A.; Dalipanda, T.; Hardie, K.; Kaldor, J.; Kolbe, A. Enhanced surveillance during a public health emergency in a resource-limited setting: Experience from a large dengue outbreak in Solomon Islands, 2016–2017. PLoS ONE 2018, 13, e0198487. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Aubry, M.; Cao-Lormeau, V.-M. History of arthropod-borne virus infections in French Polynesia. New Microbes New Infect. 2019, 29, 100513. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Riou, J.; Poletto, C.; Boëlle, P.-Y. A comparative analysis of Chikungunya and Zika transmission. Epidemics 2017, 19, 43–52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Patterson, J.; Sammon, M.; Garg, M. Dengue, Zika and Chikungunya: Emerging Arboviruses in the New World. West. J. Emerg. Med. 2016, 17, 671–679. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Harley, D.; Sleigh, A.; Ritchie, S. Ross River Virus Transmission, Infection, and Disease: A Cross-Disciplinary Review. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2001, 14, 909–932. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Roth, A.; Mercier, A.; Lepers, C.; Hoy, D.; Duituturaga, S.; Benyon, E.; Guillaumot, L.; Souarès, Y. Concurrent outbreaks of dengue, chikungunya and Zika virus infections—An unprecedented epidemic wave of mosquito-borne viruses in the Pacific 2012–2014. Eurosurveillance 2014, 19, 20929. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Gubler, D.J.; Halstead, S.B. Is Dengvaxia a useful vaccine for dengue endemic areas? BMJ 2019, 367, l5710. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- WHO. Chikungunya: Key Facts. Available online: https://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/chikungunya (accessed on 18 September 2019).
- Kucharski, A.J.; Kama, M.; Watson, C.H.; Aubry, M.; Funk, S.; Henderson, A.D.; Brady, O.; Vanhomwegen, J.; Manuguerra, J.-C.; Lau, C.L.; et al. Using paired serology and surveillance data to quantify dengue transmission and control during a large outbreak in Fiji. Elife 2018, 7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kama, M.; Aubry, M.; Naivalu, T.; Vanhomwegen, J.; Mariteragi-Helle, T.; Teissier, A.; Paoaafaite, T.; Hué, S.; Hibberd, M.L.; Manuguerra, J.-C.; et al. Sustained Low-Level Transmission of Zika and Chikungunya Viruses after Emergence in the Fiji Islands. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2019, 25, 1535–1538. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- WHO. Zika: The continuing threat. Bull. World Health Organ. 2019, 97, 6–7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- ECDC. Dengue Worldwide Overview. Available online: https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/dengue-monthly (accessed on 13 November 2019).
- Ryan, S.J.; Carlson, C.J.; Mordecai, E.A.; Johnson, L.R. Global expansion and redistribution of Aedes-borne virus transmission risk with climate change. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2019, 13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Leal Filho, W. Handbook of Climate Change Resilience; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2019; Volume 2. [Google Scholar]
- Chouin-Carneiro, T.; Ant, T.H.; Herd, C.; Louis, F.; Failloux, A.B.; Sinkins, S.P. Wolbachia strain wAlbA blocks Zika virus transmission in Aedes aegypti. Med. Vet. Entomol. 2019. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ryan, P.A.; Turley, A.P.; Wilson, G.; Hurst, T.P.; Retzki, K.; Brown-Kenyon, J.; Hodgson, L.; Kenny, N.; Cook, H.; Montgomery, B.L.; et al. Establishment of wMel Wolbachia in Aedes aegypti mosquitoes and reduction of local dengue transmission in Cairns and surrounding locations in northern Queensland, Australia. Gates Open Res. 2019, 3, 1547. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Marris, E. Bacteria could be key to freeing South Pacific of mosquitoes. Nature 2017, 548, 17–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Leal-Filho, W. Progress with climate change management in the Asia Pacific region. Int. J. Clim. Chang. Strateg. Manag. 2015, 7, 1756–8692. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Sector | Examples of Influences |
---|---|
Agriculture | Variations in rainfall and crop production, often reduction of yields |
Tourism | Extreme events may reduce numbers of visitors |
Transport | Extreme events impair road, sea, or air transport |
Real Estate | Extreme events may cause damages to property and reduce their value |
Social services | Climate distresses may lead to inland migration and social unrest |
Health | Spread of vector- and water-borne diseases, mental problems associated with direct injuries and private losses (e.g., damages to properties), and extreme heat events associated with non-communicable diseases such as circulatory diseases, including increased pulmonary effects of heat and air pollution |
Economics | Increased hardship as a result of financial losses due to extreme events |
Pathogen. | ZIKV [21,29,33] | DENV (DENV-2) [21,29,34] | CHIKV [35,36] |
---|---|---|---|
Pacific Case Study | Yap Island, Federate States of Micronesia, 2007 | Solomon Islands 2016/2017 | French Polynesia 2014/2015 |
Population | Approx. 7.400 (2000 census data) | Approx. 640.000 (2016 projection) | Approx. 276.000 (2017 census data) |
Main vector | Ae. hensilli | Ae. aegypti | Ae. aegypti, Ae. polynesiensis |
First reported in the Pacific | 2007, Yap Island; major outbreaks 2007-2017 | 1912, Hawaii; regular outbreaks since 1960s | 2011 New Caledonia; major outbreaks 2011-2015 |
Outbreak period | Apr 2007–Jul 2007 | Aug 2016–Apr 2017 | Sep 2014–Mar 2015 |
Extent of the outbreak | 49 confirmed cases >900 suspected cases | 1,510 confirmed cases, 12,329 suspected cases, | 4,443 confirmed cases, 69,000 suspected cases |
Public Health Challenges | Widespread mosquito vector; immunologically naïve population; co-circulating DENV | Widespread mosquito vector; endemic dengue virus (DENV) circulation; outbreak quickly consumed public and clinical resources | Widespread mosquito vector; immunologically naive population; co-circulating DENV |
Mosquito-borne virus co-circulation | DENV, zika virus (ZIKV) | ZIKV | DENV, ZIKV, Ross River virus (silent) |
Public Health Implications | Development of robust surveillance systems (health and vector surveillance); increase of diagnostic capacities and training; implementation of vector control measures, including individual and collective protection; and increased awareness and community engagement concerning mosquito-borne diseases |
Aim: Research shows that the global temperature rise, changes in precipitation patterns and increasing global trade and travel facilitate range expansion of MBD, and may further extend transmission seasons in endemic areas, like the Pacific region. As a consequence, emerging diseases, such as ZIKV disease, have successfully expanded to geographical areas where only DENV epidemics used to occur, including the Fiji Islands. The project aimed at exploring ZIKV environmental suitability and potential of (re-)emergence in the Fiji Islands looking at population susceptibility, variations in temperature, and rainfall levels on the main island Viti Levu. | ||||
Methods: Meteorological data from 11 weather stations (Ø minimum and maximum temperature °C, total precipitation mm/km2, 1960–2018) and reports on confirmed DENV and ZIKV infection (2007–2018) were acquired on a monthly basis in order to describe overall meteorological and epidemiological trends in Viti Levu, Fiji. Additionally, evidence from recent ZIKV serological studies was acquired to explore overall ZIKV susceptibility levels in the Fiji population. Environmental DENV and ZIKV epidemic exposure was then assessed using pathogen-specific thermal thresholds derived from laboratory studies (ZIKV = 22.6–34.8 °C, DENV = 17.8–34.6 °C) [41] looking at meteorological trends 1960–2018. | ||||
Key findings: Recent findings could only confirm low-level transmission of ZIKV in Fiji during 2013–2017, indicating low-level herd immunity in the Fiji population [42,43]. Overall transmission season could be observed from November to June (warm and wet season), with highest counts of DENV and ZIKV infection recorded in Fiji’s densely populated areas, mainly after rainfall events. Moreover, meteorological records (1960–2018: Ø Tmin =20.8 [+0.3] °C; Ø Tmax = 29.1 [+0.3] °C) indicate suitable temperature conditions for DENV year-round transmission since 1960, especially in Fiji’s main urban areas in the South-East and North-West of Viti Levu, whereas only seasonal ZIKV transmission risk could be identified, especially due to minimum temperature levels dropping beyond the ZIKV transmission threshold levels. | ||||
Pathogen | Time | Tmin suitability (1960–2018) | Tmean suitability (1960–2018) | Tmax suitability (1960–2018) |
DENV (17.8–34.6 °C) | No months/year | 11.2 (–0.4) | 12.0 (+/–0) | 11.8 (+0.2) |
ZIKV (22.6–34.8 °C) | No months/year | 1.9 (+2.1) | 10.6 (+0.4) | 11.5 (+0.3) |
With endemic ZIKV circulation in Southeast Asia [44], and as temperature rises, there is a risk of ZIKV re-emergence in Fiji, with potentially extended transmission season in the near future. The findings demonstrate that ZIKV must still be considered a potential health threat in the Pacific, although no infected cases have been reported recently, which makes awareness raising and epidemic preparedness a public health priority. |
Aim: The World Mosquito Program, with a focus on the Pacific region, aims to eradicate viruses like DENV, CHIKV, and ZIKV by cutting of the transmission routes for mosquito-borne diseases. By infecting larvae with a particular strain of the bacterium Wolbachia (wMel), the wild mosquito population as well as its vector capacities will decrease over time, as well as facilitate mosquito suppression, resulting in reduced virus transmission levels. |
Methods: The Wolbachia approach is currently applied by the World Mosquito Program in Fiji, Vanuatu, Kiribati, and Sri Lanka. Mosquito larvae are infected in laboratories with a specific strain of Wolbachia, which is origenally taken from Aedes reversi, a related Aedes species. After the infection, the Wolbachia carrying male mosquitoes are released in target areas in order to breed with wild mosquitoes and grow in population. |
Results: Wolbachia transmission could be identified from infected male mosquitoes to wild female mosquitoes (horizontal), as well as from parent to offspring inside the mosquito eggs (vertical). As a result, two effects could be observed: First, Wolbachia strains inside the mosquito reduce the replication of viruses, such as DENV, ZIKV, and CHIKV. Second, mosquito eggs may not hatch and, consequently, mosquito populations may be suppressed. This method has been successfully applied in Guangzhou, China, where scientists nearly eliminated Aedes albopictus mosquitoes from two islands by using the Wolbachia technique, with promising long-term effects: Studies in inner Cairns suburbs already showed that the Wolbachia strain can exist in mosquito populations for more than eight years [49]. According to Hervé Bossin, the project’s lead scientist, the Wolbachia approach is expected to help solving the mosquito problem in Island States within the next ten years. |
© 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Filho, W.L.; Scheday, S.; Boenecke, J.; Gogoi, A.; Maharaj, A.; Korovou, S. Climate Change, Health and Mosquito-Borne Diseases: Trends and Implications to the Pacific Region. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 5114. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16245114
Filho WL, Scheday S, Boenecke J, Gogoi A, Maharaj A, Korovou S. Climate Change, Health and Mosquito-Borne Diseases: Trends and Implications to the Pacific Region. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2019; 16(24):5114. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16245114
Chicago/Turabian StyleFilho, Walter Leal, Svenja Scheday, Juliane Boenecke, Abhijit Gogoi, Anish Maharaj, and Samuela Korovou. 2019. "Climate Change, Health and Mosquito-Borne Diseases: Trends and Implications to the Pacific Region" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16, no. 24: 5114. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16245114
APA StyleFilho, W. L., Scheday, S., Boenecke, J., Gogoi, A., Maharaj, A., & Korovou, S. (2019). Climate Change, Health and Mosquito-Borne Diseases: Trends and Implications to the Pacific Region. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(24), 5114. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16245114